Hydrostaticshttp://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htmHydrostatics is about the pressures exerted by a fluid at rest. Any fluid is meant, not just water. It is usually relegated to an early chapter in Fluid Mechanics texts, since its results are widely used in that study. The study yields many useful results of its own, however, such as forces on dams, buoyancy and hydraulic actuation, and is well worth studying for such practical reasons. It is an excellent example of deductive mathematical physics, one that can be understood easily and completely from a very few fundamentals, and in which the predictions agree closely with experiment. There are few better illustrations of the use of the integral calculus, as well as the principles of ordinary statics, available to the student. A great deal can be done with only elementary mathematics. Properly adapted, the material can be used from the earliest introduction of school science, giving an excellent example of a quantitative science with many possibilities for hands-on experiences.
The definition of a fluid deserves careful consideration. Although time is not a factor in hydrostatics, it enters in the approach to hydrostatic equilibrium. It is usually stated that a fluid is a substance that cannot resist a shearing stress, so that pressures are normal to confining surfaces. Geology has now shown us clearly that there are substances which can resist shearing forces over short time intervals, and appear to be typical solids, but which flow like liquids over long time intervals. Such materials include wax and pitch, ice, and even rock. A ball of pitch, which can be shattered by a hammer, will spread out and flow in months. Ice, a typical solid, will flow in a period of years, as shown in glaciers, and rock will flow over hundreds of years, as in convection in the mantle of the earth. Shear earthquake waves, with periods of seconds, propagate deep in the earth, though the rock there can flow like a liquid when considered over centuries. The rate of shearing may not be strictly proportional to the stress, but exists even with low stress. Viscosity may be the physical property that varies over the largest numerical range, competing with electrical resistivity.
There are several familiar topics in hydrostatics which often appear in expositions of introductory science, and which are also of historical interest that can enliven their presentation. The following will be discussed briefly here:
Pressure and its measurement
Atmospheric pressure and its effects
Maximum height to which water can be raised by a suction pump
The siphon
Discovery of atmospheric pressure and invention of the barometer
Hydraulic equivalent of a lever
Pumps
Forces on a submerged surface
The Hydrostatic Paradox
Buoyancy (Archimedes' Principle)
Measurement of Specific Gravity
References
A study of hydrostatics can also include capillarity, the ideal gas laws, the velocity of sound, and hygrometry. These interesting applications will not be discussed in this article. At a beginning level, it may also be interesting to study the volumes and areas of certain shapes, or at a more advanced level, the forces exerted by heavy liquids on their containers. Hydrostatics is a very concrete science that avoids esoteric concepts and advanced mathematics. It is also much easier to demonstrate than Newtonian mechanics.
Hydrostatic Pressure in a Liquidhttp://faculty.wwu.edu/vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/Pressure/HydroStatic.html The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the liquid. The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth depends only upon the density of the liquid ρ and the distance below the surface of the liquid h.
Pressure is not really a vector even though it looks like it in the sketches. The arrows indicate the direction of the force that the pressure would exert on a surface it is contact with.
Liquid can be both a hydrostatic pressure and a weight.. the weight has gravitational potential energy because the scalar hydrostatic fields are seperated by a piston face preventing pressure equalisation.
The hollow core of the piston has its density manipulated within the specific gravity field invoking new forces to the system. The gravitational potential energy input is directly related to the electromagnetic energy output via phase change within the specific gravity field.
A hhop gen 3 COP<1 device will have a density and resultant force within the SGF ratio of less than 1. The opposite is also true, a COP>1 hhop gen 3 will have a larger input potential than output energy required to trigger buoyancy of the piston (via density change because you pumped water out using gas). Taller water reservoir has more potential energy but same amount of force is required to trigger buoyancy force zero point polarity switch as the dimensions (length, width, height) have not changed for_the_
piston.
Communicating vesselsCommunicating vessels is a name given to a set of containers containing a homogeneous fluid: when the liquid settles, it balances out to the same level in all of the containers regardless of the shape and volume of the containers. If additional liquid is added to one vessel, the liquid will again find a new equal level in all the connected vessels.This process is part of Stevin's Law[1] and occurs because gravity and pressure are constant in each vessel (hydrostatic pressure).[2]
Blaise Pascal proved in the seventeenth century that the pressure exerted on a molecule of a liquid is transmitted in full and with the same intensity in all directions.
ApplicationsSince the days of ancient Rome, the concept of communicating vessels has been used for indoor plumbing, via aquifers and lead pipes. Water will reach the same level in all parts of the system, which acts as communicating vessels, regardless of what the lowest point is of the pipes – although in practical terms the lowest point of the system depends on the ability of the plumbing to withstand the pressure of the liquid. In cities, water towers are frequently used so that city plumbing will function as communicating vessels, distributing water to higher floors of buildings with sufficient pressure.
Hydraulic presses, using systems of communicating vessels, are widely used in various applications of industrial processes.
Artesian aquiferAn artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure. This causes the water level in a well to rise to a point where hydrostatic equilibrium has been reached.
A well drilled into such an aquifer is called an artesian well. If water reaches the ground surface under the natural pressure of the aquifer, the well is called a flowing artesian well.[1]
An aquifer is a geologic layer of porous and permeable material such as sand and gravel, limestone, or sandstone, through which water flows and is stored. An artesian aquifer is confined between impermeable rocks or clay which causes this positive pressure. Not all the aquifers are artesian, because the water table must reach the surface (not the case for underground groundwater such as, for example, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System). The recharging of aquifers happens when the water table at its recharge zone is at a higher elevation than the head of the well.
Fossil water aquifers can also be artesian if they are under sufficient pressure from the surrounding rocks. This is similar to how many newly tapped oil wells are pressurized.
Artesian wells were named after the former province of Artois in France, where many artesian wells were drilled by Carthusian monks from 1126.
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