The hhop AKA hho pulsometer is a direct current electrical input device. Electrolysis is the energy conversion method for creating gas pressure from electricity, creating variable pressure hho and steam. Gas production rate controlled by electrical input energy, Lord Kelvin's water dropper ignition system's spark rate is both fixed and generous.
1 Atmosphere, 1 Bar, 15 psi is the system's natural operating pressure. 10 metre head of water at 15 psi available via suction pumping, 1 metre head of water force pumped at 1.5 psi is enough to run a Kelvin dropper. Spark ignition phase changes gas to liquid, creating a relative negative vacuum with respect to atmospheric system pressure, 1 Atmosphere. Single non return valve prevents gas pressurisation of the main reservoir and atmospheric valve, instead performing work on the other atmospheric valve and water outlet.
hhop1 shows the system gas cell located vertically below the cross chamber. Directly above the displacement / combustion chamber holds the spark plug. To the left of the cross after the check valve is the main reservoir oriented vertically. To the right of the cross is the vertical atmospheric tube valve and hose assembly.
Note the black dielectric insulator sleeves, they create the hhop's two electrical circuits. A gas production circuit and an ignition circuit which includes the sparkplug also. The system is shown looped, awaiting ignition system integration.
A compressed air snapvalve running at 10psi powering a linear magnet switch spark gap might be fun.
hhop2 shows an exploded view of every component in the system. The part 2nd from bottom, corners cut, pp reducing bush 1/2"m, 1/4"f bsp, ebay. Can you identify all the parts ?
hhop3 shows the internals of the system. The gas cross bypass tube with sleeve removed, and a vertical view of the tube gas cell.
hhop4 is..?)
The hhop is my retirement project and I have decided to share it with the members of this forum. Members are welcome to comment and are encouraged to contribute, I will moderate the thread to keep it on topic. I just want to talk about hhop and have some fun playing with it.
hhop 5 is another variation of the design, lowering cost by reducing fittings required, and improving efficiency. The displacement / combustion chamber has had its diameter increased leveraging pascals principle during the displacement phase of the cycle. Cost has also been reduced. The outlet tube on the right is a gas pipe from the plumbing shop in 1/4bsp, the excess that i cut off is lying next to it and is very useful for raising water through 1m vertical height. The reservoir on the left has had it's valve placed vertically altering the stress on the fittings and compacting the width while raising the height of the reservoir. The goal would be to replace the entire left branch completely with plastic fittings and non return check valves, the same for the right branch. This focuses resources on the center column which comprises the gas cell and d / c chamber containing the ignition assembly. hhop 7 shows the valves i use in the clear plastic line, setting chamber volume via linear distance between valves. The assembly is now starting to look like it is approaching an efficient configuration :)
hhop6 shows the fitting sizes with improvements being made via reducing from 2" to 1/2" direct for compatibility with the spark plug adaptor. The 3/4" cross remains because it is necessary to house internally the od of the 1/2" to 1/4" reducing bush after modification to fit. Once custom threaded adaptors are being made (I am toying with the idea of making custom Delrin bushes) the potential integration of system components becomes greater.
I want us all to have fun with this, it is a real functioning device fully disclosed, and can be vastly improved with some R&D. This is a task for a small community not an individual so if anyone wants to help out your more than welcome. For example, the Kelvin water dropper ignition system is going to need a smart controller timer and possibly a capacitor bank to store unused charge potential to later be used for covering misfire energy costs. I am working on a pressure related switch using a neodymium linear piston as a moving spark gap (increasing the spark gaps in the system to 2 while being visually impressive and fun at the same time;)
Hi ea
I like your design and would prefer a piezo actuated igniter over the Kelvin water dropper, since you have high pressure pulses, all that is needed is a suitable delay / advance and some electrical storage. This is easy to do e.g. the piezo can store a small portion of the pressure pulse into a HV capacitor which is later released for the next required ignition. This could also be done with a magneto, a coil plus moving magnet and suitable storage / delay.
How much estimated energy per pulse is required for ignition, how much is released with each pulse? (rough calculation in Joules)
The pictures are nice, high res shots but if you can supply a simple hand sketch showing all components, that would be helpful in explaining the whole loop. Maybe you have done this already in some back pages.
Thank you for posting, your work is highly appreciated.
Hi ION,
Yeah I love this design too, it has thousands of hours of love devoted to it so far and the progress is pleasing. The experimental data has held to theory well and led to the structure, with many smaller proofs along the way providing the mini successes that keep you going. I have discovered some new possible integrations that I have had zero time to attend to, but they are interesting!
The hho cell that has both electrolysis circuit and ignition system built into the structural design of the cell is a recent discovery by accident. Interestingly it is the design I gave you 2 years ago, but I didn't know it did this back then :) It runs off the same input signal (12V DC rectified from wall 240V AC) but when pulsed manually on and off with a battery charger it will charge the cell with gas on one pulse, and ignite the residual gas in the cell on the next pulse and then charge as normal.
Not much gas left to ignite so it's a much smaller humph and I think its mainly the fresh hho generated while the cell is off that is igniting, but at 12V across the cell walls it's not a spark doing it.. so is it RF ? Plasma ? Electro-Hydraulic shock ? Don't know yet is the current answer.
So let's get this straight;
I hook up the battery charger clamps to the electrodes, I hit the battery charger on button which is number 1 on the remote, switching on the battery charger that reads a dead battery, no charge because its water and salt. It force pumps lots of amps into the cell at 14.4V say and the cell begins producing steam and hho at quite a rate. The fuel generated now occupies the top of the chamber displacing the water below it, as the fuel pressure builds. I now hit button 1 again and turn off the electrolysis gas cell.
Now I hit button 2..
80,000 Volts across a 1mm spark plug gap in the top of the chamber.. pretty sight :D Dielectric breakdown of air into a plasma arc is 30 kV per cm. Therefore 3 kV is no problem, and in theory we got the leftover energy going to plasma, in air that is..
So the charge goes off with a whumph, a relative vacuum is created and suction pumping begins to fill the chamber with water. Button 2 again and the ignition system is now off. The gas cell is still producing hho even though the charger power is off and it is filling a chamber with a slowly reducing volume. Wait a few seconds and then hit button 1 to turn the charger back on because you want some more gas right ? Well the moment you hit that button the cell goes humph.. it ignited at 12V on a charge cycle, reliably, repeatably.
So, the chamber is not filled with air if you bleed it, and is full of air if you don't. An air intake NRV in the chamber and we are well on our way to a breathing pump, taking a breath on each suction cycle as well as diluting the hho and creating a lean burn scenario.
The Kelvin water dropper accepts a low pressure input and generates a high electrical potential output, allowing fuel pressure to charge the ignition system. This is significant because it allows me to reduce the system inputs to one, low Voltage DC. Should the cell discovery described above be understood in the future and then integrated into the design I will be able to remove the Kelvin water dropper and run the system more reliably (both gas and ignition functions from the same cell) with a simple timer pulse controller on the DC input line.
Light from the combustion event is also available as an input energy source, so a clear walled combustion pressure container, or an ion gas sleeve perhaps, and we got a grow lamp :D that has a built in pump and heater. The pollutants from the combustion process waste gases, become nutrients for the plants and algae. Underwater farming using tidal power would be a good direction to go..
Lot's of fun to be had with the hhop 8)
Standard off the shelf gas restrictor tube:
http://www.toolstation.com/shop/p67529
High quality stainless steel threaded tubing in a variety of lengths, from 2" to 2m. Use these for electrodes and gas bypass tubes, and the longer sections for outlet tube. Threaded both ends 1/4 bspt male:
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/HIGH-PRESSURE-WASHER-STAINLESS-PIPE-TUBE-1-4BSP-MALE-THREADS-400BAR-0123456789MM-/180809855425?pt=UK_Home_Garden_PowerTools_SM&var=&hash=item2a191b71c1
Non return check valves:
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/10-Non-Return-One-Way-Check-Valve-Co2-Aquarium-Air-Pump-/281188502692?pt=UK_Pet_Supplies_Fish&hash=item4178240ca4
Polypropylene reducing bush 1/2"M to 1/4"F (dielectric insulator):
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/1-2-M-x-1-4-F-BSP-Reducing-Bushing-Polypropylene-PP-Black-Plastic-Pipe-Fitting-/321190468232?pt=UK_DIY_Materials_Plumbing_MJ&hash=item4ac8719a88
Sparkplug adaptor 1/2" bspM to 14mmF for the combustion chamber:
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/Spark-Plug-Thread-Adaptors-Brass-1-2-Pipe-down-14mm-/220891717863?pt=UK_CarsParts_Vehicles_CarParts_SM&hash=item336e2c20e7
Garden hose tap adaptor, brass 3/4" bsp outer nipple, internal 1/2" and 5/8" reducing female thread:
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/3-4-Inch-x-5-8-Inch-x-1-2-Inch-BSP-Bib-Tap-Adapter-Bush-Brass-/121220243340?pt=UK_DIY_Materials_Plumbing_MJ&hash=item1c394a1f8c
Garden hose tap adaptor, plastic 3/4" bsp outer nipple, internal 1/2" and 5/8" reducing female thread:
http://cgi.ebay.co.uk/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&item=121237612002
ZX55 low cost supplier of stainless steel fittings in bsp:
http://zx55.com/default.asp
Pipestock low cost supplier of polypropylene (pp) fittings in bsp:
http://www.pipestock.com/pp-threaded-fittings/
I want to get interested people building quickly, without having to post devices to each other. You have all the information you need now to replicate, all you have to do is connect power and it will work, add an ignition system of some sort and your up and running.
Basic sketch of the design.
Evolvingape
Thanks for the part sourcing info,looking forward to assembling this neat little project.
Truly greatful for you sharing this!
Chet
Evolvingape:
Thanks for the sketch and part sourcing, it is a big help.
No worries guys, the effort to put the links up for you was minuscule compared to the effort that went into finding them for me. It's amazing how something so hard to earn can be given away so easily, but in that act lies the multiplier.
There are really only a few key components. The 3/4" bsp tap adaptor nipple that is also internally threaded 1/2" bspf allows you to sleeve easily (if its drilled and tapped straight) and reverse direction, while isolating electrical signals, and easy to get off the shelf walking into any B&Q or Wickes or somewhere like that. It comes in both plastic and brass flavours...
The reversing nipple above is the reason for the 3/4" cross, direct compatibility, and the 1/2" to 1/4" bsp reducing bush just interferes 'sometimes' going through the cross thread bore, which is the reason for the junior hacksaw to make the bush fit. So by going up to a 1" cross I require another reducing bush 1" to 3/4" and also removes the junior hacksaw requirement :) With a selection of the same part on hand so you can find ones slightly different that fit without being modded you can build a hhop completely without tools.
The pressure washer tube is also essential as it forms the central electrode of the gas processing cell, and makes a mighty strong bypass tube to withstand the combustion event and pressure changes in the chamber, electrically isolated so no electrolysis going on... maybe ? Don't know yet, there are many things about this cell+ that I do not yet understand.
Don't forget your 1/2" bsp spark plug adaptor that allows you to take any 14mm spark plug and you got a new toy ;D
Merry Christmas everyone, hope you and your families all had a great time! :D
If we take another look at the image hhop1.jpg we can see that the assembly has no NRV on the pump outlet line on the right. This is how I ran all my initial testing with the system open to atmospheric pressure for safety reasons, my early prototypes were also all built with hydraulic class fittings and only later when I deemed it safe did I move to bsp 150lb class stainless steel fittings. The problem with the early design was that initially my hho cell was mounted at the the top of the system on a branch level with the d / c chamber and this worked fine, however when I moved the hho cell to the bottom of the system in an inline design I found that as the fuel pressure started to build some of the gas would follow the system fluid flow and travel up the outlet line. To rectify this situation I added the bypass tube so that the hho gas would, and could only be, delivered directly to the d / c chamber. This took a while to develop but now that we know how to do it, it's easy right!
So what we now have is a device that runs on solar power (converted to DC via the solar panel), processes it's own fuel through electrolysis, uses the fuel pressure created to displace water and force pump it through a vertical height charging the ignition system, and the ignition event resetting the system to initial conditions. When the relative partial vacuum is created after the ignition event, were we to connect the inlet side of the system to a water body below the device atmospheric pressure would refill the chamber by suction pumping. A neat little circle that also shows some critical design principles to be adhered to when building something like this.
The hhop works in a very similar manner to the Steam Pulsometer whose original design has two branches that worked on opposite cycles, it could not have a single inline design because the heat powering the steam boiler could not be turned off and significantly reduce steam production quickly. However, the hhop can have it's DC input turned off to save energy and the rate of hho production can drop rapidly with only residual charge in the cell producing gas at a slow rate but much purer hho content without the steam present. The inline supersonic steam pulsometer was my answer to the problem of turning the steam production off, using peak chamber pressure to trigger the system instead. As all 3 designs can be run off DC input it will be very interesting in the future to directly compare the designs working principles and performance.
At some point in the new year (weather permitting) I will begin testing on the hhop and make a video for you showing the operation. Hopefully by then other people will be building this device and we can compare notes, it is very simple with standard off the shelf parts and can be run from a car battery or charger, and ignition systems are in no short supply around here so I see no obstacle's to replication apart from lack of interest in the device and technology itself.
First let's look at the Daniell Cell, something that has intrigued me since I came across it many years ago in school:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniell_cell
Now let's look at a recent posting from Revolution Green:
http://revolution-green.com/wattjoule-breakthrough-energy-storage-technology/
Also note the comment from Mark E. at the bottom of the page.
What similarities can you see between the Daniell Cell and the Wattjoule device ?
The hhop has the fluid pump built into the system, using fuel pressure from the fuel processing cell to create the fluid displacement and pump the electrolyte.
The Kelvin water dropper automatically separates the charge in the electrolyte into a high potential difference Voltage (Note: extensive testing using charged electrolyte in a looped Kelvin water dropper hhop not completed yet).
The spark gap converts the ( high voltage low current ) into ( low voltage high current ) providing the ignition system spark.
The double series spark gap will provide timing control and system reset with feedback provided by the fluid displacement process. ( When I have finished it )
Can we extract a charge from the electrolyte at any point in this system that will not affect it's looped operation ? ( Don't know yet! )
The hhop is fully disclosed, you have all the information needed to build one and now you have a parts sourcing list the prototype can be built for around $200 ish.
BSP is not essential, NPT fittings ( along with any other compatible fitting type ) can be used as well depending on geographic location. The reversing nipple requires a local replacement if unavailable to purchase or a custom nipple tapped and threaded from suitable stock material. If you really wanted you could bypass the reversing barrel nipple completely and run the electrode directly into the D / C chamber using a dual earth system...
There are lot's more things you can do with this device, and now you have the construction method you can innovate, like a battery fuel cell, can all be built out of these fittings and added to the structure seamlessly using series and parallel cell circuits.
For example, what happens if I wire the damn thing up wrong ? Hooking up 80kV to the fuel cell hhop4? Something or nothing? tell me what and why and under what environmental conditions said effects occur and I might say more...
P.S. Sorry ION but I don't take PIN / POUT measurements because if I did the reality check might tell me something I am trying to ignore, and more importantly, is diametrically opposed to my agenda.
"The double series spark gap will provide timing control and system reset with feedback provided by the fluid displacement process. ( When I have finished it )"
The first spark gap is fixed being across the sparkplug electrodes in the combustion chamber, a distance of approximately 1mm. This sparkgap 1 enjoys a closed environment inside the chamber, experiences steady rate pressure increases before rapid change to partial relative vacuum. Phase change relative implosion of the gas present is triggered by this spark event.
Sparkgap 2 is outside the chamber and enjoys an open environment at atmospheric pressure. The gap distance itself is variable and acts as a switch, a rocker switch affair on a lever arm maybe.
A pressure switch in the line could act as a nice reliable trigger controlled by an arduino. As we are pumping a fluid with mass through a vertical height it has relative GPE gravitational potential energy, weight.
Sparkgap 2 closes the gap as the UIR ignition reservoir fills and at a certain point triggers dielectric breakdown in air and the spark jumps the gap. The ignition reservoir must be a container of some sort open at the top to receive fluid, both atmospheric pressure ( pneumatic air) and pumped liquid water with gravitational potential energy (hydraulic water).
Control the water bleed rate from the dynamic UIR (on the end of the lever about the pivot moment using water weight increase over time as a rate meter) to the static LIR lower ignition reservoir using a controlled bleed to feed the opposite polarity Kelvin water dropper's, and therefore the drip rate through an orifice of known diameter at AP atmospheric pressure.
Radial porting drilled into UIR container at a specific height on the container will relate UIR discharge rate to DC displacement chamber force pumping rate. This method bypasses the need for a dump valve on the UIR to discharge into the LIR in order to continue the process, but will require accurate initial timing setup about the trigger point.
If the ignition system above seems a little over complicated, well 'hah' yeah i suppose it is, but it is just so much fun I can't resist it like a moth to a flame. So let's make things a bit easier and get an accessible ignition system on the go:
http://www.sentex.net/~mwandel/cannon/sparky.html
This ignition system works and is timed manually by swiping the lead across the battery terminal. It works best off a series 8 1.5 Volt AA battery bank, get the plastic chassis cheap off ebay or maplins etc. Try and swipe it over a car battery and you will burn out the internal resistor in the HV ignition coil, that cost me a coil and the exciting bit is the foreknowledge of the cost to prove it C.C If you want even simpler and more powerful ignition sp'arcs' look for pre built HV ignition systems on ebay.
shhop01 uses a central tube electrode with dielectric bypass sleeve that also serves as the internal mount for the neutral sleeve tube in the chamber. The hho cell is now sleeved inside the displacement combustion chamber. The outside sleeve of electrolyte fluid between the ground and neutral tube is displaced, but not completely, ensuring the electrical circuit is not broken and the cell continues to create gas.
shhop02 The brass assembly at the top of the dc chamber is a standard relief valve of some sort probably a shower set at a couple of bar. With a custom piston rod might server as a simple version of the snapvalve governer achieving self pressure cycle regulation, needs integrating with ignition assembly.
shhop03 shows the central electrode assembly stripped from the pump along with the usual NRV's and reservoir etc.
shhop04 shows the central electrode assembly stripped. The polypropylene riser sleeve is 1/2" bsp and the electrode tube is 1/4" bsp, I drilled out the plastic to interference fit with the tube and some epoxy etc on final assembly will seal.
Still needs a snapvalve governer capable of variable timed ignition, or an electrical timing circuit of your choice might be more suitable for you.
Quote from: ION on 2013.12.15, 18:14:27
Hi ea
I like your design and would prefer a piezo actuated igniter over the Kelvin water dropper, since you have high pressure pulses, all that is needed is a suitable delay / advance and some electrical storage. This is easy to do e.g. the piezo can store a small portion of the pressure pulse into a HV capacitor which is later released for the next required ignition. This could also be done with a magneto, a coil plus moving magnet and suitable storage / delay.
When I analysed the system and concluded that hho gas pressure (produced via electrolysis) was capable of pumping water through a significant height in the gravitational field, I had an output from the cell that could be used. In order to loop that output I needed an ignition system that could accept as an input, the output from the cell pressure. The Kelvin water dropper fit this profile and is why I embarked on proving that a static HV electrical charge could reliably discharge across a spark gap inside a metallic pump housing. I built my own electrodes inside hydraulic fittings from scratch to prove this, before moving to a high quality spark plug integrated design. The point of all this was to show people how to analyse the inputs and outputs at each stage in the process and build them into a system capable of self looping. I have since moved on from automotive spark plugs due to corrosion problems over time however by integrating the spark gap with the hho cell I was able to solve this and simply use two signals, an LV signal to generate the gas and then a HV signal to create a spark. Since then I have managed to theoretically integrate the snapvalve governer into the system as an alternative means of ignition, using the sensitivity of the primary explosive hho to directly access the cell gas pressure as a means of ignition. I have yet to build the snapvalve governer but I am confident it will work if designed correctly, thus running the ignition circuit of the cell directly off the gas pressure produced in a self regulating manner.
Quote from: ION on 2013.12.15, 18:14:27
How much estimated energy per pulse is required for ignition, how much is released with each pulse? (rough calculation in Joules)
In the new snapvalve governer ignition system design there is no additional cost of energy for the ignition event to occur (as there is not in the Kelvin water dropper system either). The LV DC signal that creates the gas pressure to pump also creates the ignition energy reaction when the snapvalve governer "snaps", hho sensitivity to shock is the principle being exploited here. The intended solar application of this device also allows for the potential integration of a LV DC ignition system input and suitable timing control circuitry, however that is extra electronics vulnerable to EMP so from my point of view, undesirable.
Let's kick things up a notch...
http://www.tytlabs.com/tech/fpeg/index.html
http://www.f1technical.net/forum/viewtopic.php?p=509015&f=11
"linear Generators are nothing new ...Volvo worked on something as well .
Most Projects fail to acknowledge the Problem of heat degrading the magnetic force using permanent magnets"
Most projects... but not my project... my cooling system is integrated into the device itself and comprises the working fluid and a heat exchanger, a simple radiator. I am not radiating heat away to the environment wastefully, I am using it as an input to a low grade heating system for your home run off solar power.
Centraflow has quite correctly, and quickly I might add, deduced that shhop can become an "engine" although I would add that it must be multiple cylinder due to the low"ish" reciprocal rate (rate potential currently unknown). I countered with a manifold design and staggered timing. 32 micro pistons, how about 64, or 128...
High temperature magnets are available up to 350C retail :
https://www.hkcm.de/expert.php
Each vacuum stroke of the cycle introduces cool feedstock water, and each compression stroke pumps away heated electrolyte, while pumping the coolant electrolyte to the heat exchanger which radiates to environment (air in your house). After the heat has been removed the coolant can be recycled or dumped (It's hard to ignore the cold water under the ground or out the tap)... Both 1/2's of the reciprocal cycle generates power in the coil, or potentially an ionised gas as an input to another process...
I have also removed the gas spring for resetting the piston, the backpressure from the coolant system flow control valve provides partial resistance while the vacuum and atmospheric pressure create the potential difference for resetting the system to Time = 0
You now have all the hidden keys to both the HELP and shhop.
1) System at starting conditions atmospheric pressure. Ring magnet with buoyancy cancelling weight.
2) Gas pressure generated by hho cell displaces fluid and forces magnet down through coil generating a Current to be stored in a capacitor. Gas spring is external atmospheric pressure at 1 Bar.
3) Magnet has fully passed through coil and coil is now non energised. Core of coil is hho gas which has replaced the liquid electrolyte.
4) hho phase change triggered and emits EMP which charges coil. Current is again tapped off and stored in capacitor.
5) hho core is replaced by vacuum core and water vapour.
5) Atmospheric pressure drives water back into chamber vacuum, forcing magnet through coil and generating a Current which is again tapped off and stored.
6) System has returned to starting conditions and cycle can now repeat.
The electrolyte acts as the coolant (but can also be normal water as the hho cell electrolyte and pumped working fluid can be separated. Low grade heat exchanged with air inside your house via radiator. Each complete cycle 1 - 6 generates three opportunities to extract electrical energy, 2 from the linear reciprocation of the magnet through the coil and 1 from the hho phase change event. Small electrical output runs LED house lighting.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanically-powered_flashlight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidifier
An ultrasonic humidifier uses a metal diaphragm vibrating at an ultrasonic frequency to create water droplets that silently exit the humidifier in the form of a cool fog. Ultrasonic humidifiers use a piezoelectric transducer to create a high frequency mechanical oscillation in a film of water. This forms an extremely fine mist of droplets about one micron in diameter, that is quickly evaporated into the air flow.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins) in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron, which stands for amber, an ancient source of electric charge. Piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_reflectivity_modification#Ultrasonic_excitation_of_a_liquid_using_a_piezo-electric_transducer
This technique works by creating faraday waves at a free surface. If the waves are steep enough the droplets of sea water will be thrown from the crests and particles can enter into the clouds within a predictable area. However, a significant amount of energy is required.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_waves
Faraday waves, also known as Faraday ripples, named after Michael Faraday, are nonlinear standing waves that appear on liquids enclosed by a vibrating receptacle. When the vibration frequency exceeds a critical value, the flat hydrostatic surface becomes unstable. This is known as the Faraday instability. Faraday first described them in an appendix to an article in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1831.
If a layer of liquid is placed on top of a vertically oscillating piston, a pattern of standing waves appears which oscillates at half the driving frequency, given certain criteria of instability. This relates to the problem of parametric resonance. The waves can take the form of stripes, close-packed hexagons, or even squares or quasiperiodic patterns. Faraday waves are commonly observed as fine stripes on the surface of wine in a wineglass that is ringing like a bell. Faraday waves also explain the 'fountain' phenomenon on a singing bowl.
The Faraday wave and its wavelength is analogous to the de Broglie wave with the de Broglie wavelength in quantum mechanics.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiphasic_liquid
A multiphasic liquid is a mixture consisting of more than two immiscible liquid phases. Biphasic mixtures consisting of two immiscible phases are very common and usually consist of an organic solvent and an aqueous phase ("oil and water").
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_bubble
A bubble is a globule of one substance in another, usually gas in a liquid. Due to the Marangoni effect, bubbles may remain intact when they reach the surface of the immersive substance.
An electrical input converted to an ultrasonic high frequency mechanical oscillation can induce standing Faraday Waves in a vertical liquid piston. The resultant ejection of water vapour from the surface forms antibubbles in an (air) oxidiser / inert gas atmosphere. Substitution of the (air) inert / oxidiser atmosphere for a hho atmosphere, as in the case of combining a hhop with a fuel vapour transducer, a bad idea. You have placed both primary and secondary explosives in the same place at the same time without control.
The primary and secondary fuel processing systems must be kept separate at all times. They may be combined in the combustion chamber, but in order to do that you must have a delivery system. We adopt the use of differing specific gravity properties of liquids to separate our hydraulic piston and our air gas layer in the secondary fuel processing outer sleeve.
Using air as the only sensible gas to compress as an input in this system, and using negative pressure to suck secondary fuel liquid globules into the stream, gives us a mixture which will burn. Primary is picked up, mixed, and injected into the flow in the same manner and we now have secondary fuel air diluted antibubbles ready, in a watered down primary gas antibubble, entrained in a hydraulic liquid flow. Sensitive to both ignition via compression and spark timed ionisation via the dielectric breakdown of dissimilar fluids across the spark gap.
PHELIS
http://www.overunity.com/10218/helis-hydro-electro-lytic-injector-system/nowap/#.U23w-nb3Gh4
http://www.overunity.com/11318/plasmics/#.U230P3b3Gh4
A short video of hhop pumping electrolyte through the system loop.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GaJ003wkEo8&feature=youtu.be
Minor disaster when the 80K ignition system went pop, no idea why because I had tested it before hooking it up and it was working fine. Oh well.. it happens..
hhop gas displacement bypass tube simplified:
http://www.toolstation.com/shop/Brass+Shower+Arm+Connector/p91988
This is the design used in the hhop video.
hhop V algae ?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsoE4F2Pb20
My friend sent me this video:
George Wiseman Describes Al Throckmorton's Overunity Water Pump at TeslaTech 2014
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wnxUFTt4lAg
The conversation at the 8:00 minute mark made me smile... "You know as well as I do if you did this right.." O0
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.01.23, 19:39:33
The conversation at the 8:00 minute mark made me smile... "You know as well as I do if you did this right.." O0
Ol' David Puchta. A lot of what he says will make you smile. :)
Pretty neat just how powerful a little blast of that gas is:
http://www.lordspumpproject.com/first-outdoor-working-tests-of-water-pump.html
The whole water piston concept is really quite brilliant. Too bad Tommey Reed bailed on us. I bet he could build exactly what is mentioned in your video link.
Quote from: Matt Watts on 2015.01.23, 23:10:51
The whole water piston concept is really quite brilliant. Too bad Tommey Reed bailed on us. I bet he could build exactly what is mentioned in your video link.
Original credit for the water piston concept is probably "The Pulsometer steam pump is a pistonless pump which was patented in 1872[1] by American Charles Henry Hall", the original inspiration for hhop.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsometer_pump
The Vogt engine might be in with a shout but I think was behind by a few decades.. hard to tell without the patent date:
http://overunity.com/13896/hho-hydrogen-and-diesel-injection-the-truth/msg379840/#msg379840
I am sure Tommey could build a hhop, I did it without a workshop on the living room floor in a few hours assembly time (most of the time was spent sealing the joints with ptfe tape and on some occasions loctite), and for a parts cost of around a few hundred $.. the automatic timing electrics need to be added but that is probably quite cheap and easy for the talented fellow's around here. hhop is a teaching aid and not the most advanced model but if I ever come out of retirement I might build another (I gave the original away to a friend) it sure was fun shooting water in the air! Shit my pants the first time though, the reaction is rapid, violent but reasonably quiet being muffled by the stainless housing. The neighbours never complained anyway.. don't think they even heard it.
Wait until people figure out what else you can do with it.. should be an interesting year! ;)
Quote from: Matt Watts on 2015.01.23, 23:10:51
Ol' David Puchta. A lot of what he says will make you smile. :)
Yeah your right, this comment in particular made me smile! ;D
Quote
Happy thinking, I think this one deserves a serious look, please if you do this replication give credit to the man who had the guts to bring it to the table.
Cheers
David A Puchta
Some good info in the comments section of the pesn article:
http://pesn.com/2014/08/05/9602523_George-Wiseman_Describes_Al-Throckmortons_Overunity-Water-Pump_at_TeslaTech-2014/
My personal favourite,
Quote
"I'm thinking the spark plug should be centrally located at the top of the dome; better to do once the explosion chamber is steel."
hhop1 will help you out George! O0
Let's learn some pump fundamentals courtesy of Jacques Chaurette:
http://www.pumpfundamentals.com/tutorial1.htm#Anchor-Ther-19499
Nice little kitchen experiment by Jacques Chaurette, showing the awesome unseen power of atmospheric pressure:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WcILL9QPUoM
tutorial.pdf by Jacques attached for further offline study.
Thankyou Jacques! O0
hho gas detonation water pump device:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c76yT2DslP8
Jump to 09:25 for the important visual data.. Is the majority of the water being pumped in 2009 by the gas creation/bleeding cycle, or is it from the explosion/implosion event ?
What stable pressure before auto ignition occurs can the gas created on demand sustain ? Is this a controllable repeatable phenomena ?
217 psi = 500 foot of head.
http://www.convertunits.com/from/psi/to/foot+of+head
How is flow rate related to gas production ? How is gas production related to electrical Power IN ? What parts of the system are hydraulic and what is pneumatic ?
Is temperature related to pressure in a fixed volume ? How does that change when the chamber volume increases due to a moving fluid displaced piston ?
If the work done by the gas displacement and the work done by the combustion cycle are separate events, can the ratio be varied without affecting primary operation of the device ? Yes it can. O0
http://www.seabirdadventure.com/tesla-turbine-publisher/184-superheated-electrolysis-and-adiabatic-compression
What is Vacuum Steam?
http://www.tlv.com/global/TI/steam-theory/vacuum-steam.html
Cyclical pressure treatment of wood is an alternative application I am looking at for hhop technology.
Page 2 of the pdf shows the vacuum pressure cycles required which are well within hhop capabilities.
Beer Science! ;D
https://youtu.be/q3oJrMxsIwo
Surface Tension in Fluid Mechanics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MUlmkSnrAzM&feature=youtu.be
hhop gen 3 8)
Buoyancy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy
In science, buoyancy (pronunciation: /ˈbɔɪ.ənᵗsi/[1][2] or /ˈbuːjənᵗsi/)[1][2] (also known as upthrust) is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the bottom of the column, and (as explained by Archimedes' principle) is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid.
For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction (that is, a non-inertial reference frame). In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.[3]
Density
If the weight of an object is less than the weight of the displaced fluid when fully submerged, then the object has an average density that is less than the fluid and when fully submerged will experience a buoyancy force greater than its own weight. If the fluid has a surface, such as water in a lake or the sea, the object will float and settle at a level where it displaces the same weight of fluid as the weight of the object. If the object is immersed in the fluid, such as a submerged submarine or air in a balloon, it will tend to rise. If the object has exactly the same density as the fluid, then its buoyancy equals its weight. It will remain submerged in the fluid, but it will neither sink nor float, although a disturbance in either direction will cause it to drift away from its position. An object with a higher average density than the fluid will never experience more buoyancy than weight and it will sink. A ship will float even though it may be made of steel (which is much denser than water), because it encloses a volume of air (which is much less dense than water), and the resulting shape has an average density less than that of the water.
hhop 3 drawing update
Thanks for the help with the valve timing Graham! O0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_velocity
Terminal velocity in the presence of buoyancy force
When the buoyancy effects are taken into account, an object falling through a fluid under its own weight can reach a terminal velocity (settling velocity) if the net force acting on the object becomes zero. When the terminal velocity is reached the weight of the object is exactly balanced by the upward buoyancy force and drag force. That is
W = F_b + D
where
W = weight of the object,
F_b = buoyancy force acting on the object, and
D = drag force acting on the object.
By displacing liquid and replacing it with gas the electrolysis cell is doing work, a mass transfer has occurred and the weight of the object, along with the density and gravitational acceleration has reduced. The gas exhausted externally lowers the density of the liquid hydraulic medium, it becomes semi-elastic and reduces drag on the object ascending.
We have altered all three of the variables and therefore the result which the equation defines has become a variable within the specific gravity field.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_%28physics%29#Field_theory
Field theory usually refers to a construction of the dynamics of a field, i.e. a specification of how a field changes with time or with respect to other independent physical variables on which the field depends. Usually this is done by writing a Lagrangian or a Hamiltonian of the field, and treating it as the classical mechanics (or quantum mechanics) of a system with an infinite number of degrees of freedom. The resulting field theories are referred to as classical or quantum field theories.
The dynamics of a classical field are usually specified by the Lagrangian density in terms of the field components; the dynamics can be obtained by using the action principle.
It is possible to construct simple fields without any a priori knowledge of physics using only mathematics from several variable calculus, potential theory and partial differential equations (PDEs). For example, scalar PDEs might consider quantities such as amplitude, density and pressure fields for the wave equation and fluid dynamics; temperature/concentration fields for the heat/diffusion equations.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density (mass of the same unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly always water at its densest, (4°C) for liquids and for gases, air at room temperature, (21°C). That being stated temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_field
In mathematics and physics, a scalar field associates a scalar value to every point in a space. The scalar may either be a mathematical number or a physical quantity. Scalar fields are required to be coordinate-independent, meaning that any two observers using the same units will agree on the value of the scalar field at the same point in space (or spacetime). Examples used in physics include the temperature distribution throughout space, the pressure distribution in a fluid, and spin-zero quantum fields, such as the Higgs field. These fields are the subject of scalar field theory.
Scalar gravity field theory defined within a specific gravity field frame of reference ?
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_theories_of_gravitation
How to Grow Food in the Middle of a Desert Using Seawater
http://gizmodo.com/how-to-grow-food-in-the-middle-of-a-desert-using-seawat-1592148078
As conventional sources of clean water dry up, we're looking ever farther, wider, and deeper. In a long feature on unusual sources of water, Nature leads us somewhere especially unexpected—into the middle of a desert. The Sahara Forest Project wants to prove we can green the desert, turning barren land into oases of cucumbers and melons. And the water? It'll come from the sea.
The unusual idea is made possible by greenhouses, but not greenhouses as you know them. Instead of trapping heat, the Sahara Forest Project's greenhouses are cool and moist. Here's how Science described the pilot facility in the Qatar last year:
At one end, salt water is trickled over a gridlike curtain so that the prevailing wind blows the resulting cool, moist air over the plants inside. This cooling effect allowed the Qatar facility to grow three crops per year, even in the scorching summer. At the other end of the greenhouse is a network of pipes with cold seawater running through them. Some of the moisture in the air condenses on the pipes and is collected, providing a source of fresh water.
Surprisingly, moist air leaking out from the greenhouse encouraged plants around the buildings, too. While cucumbers and tomatoes grew inside the greenhouse, arugula and barley could grow right outside.
The facility also takes advantage of one natural resource in abundance in the desert: sun. Solar panels generate electricity for the pump systems, and excess electricity can go toward desalination of additional seawater.
Last year, the Sahara Forest Project harvested the first crops from its pilot location in the Qatari desert. Their yield was comparable to a traditional greenhouse of the same size, and now they're aiming to build a larger test facility in Jordan. As all new tech goes, this is currently an incredibly expensive way to grow some salad. That could change, though, especially in an increasingly thirsty world.
The piece over at Nature has several other slightly crazy but somehow plausible water ideas, like harvesting fog and reviving 2,000-year-old waterworks. Just another reminder that getting clean water is a lot more complicated than turning on your faucet.
Electrolysis of Salt Water
http://aquarius.nasa.gov/pdfs/electrolysis.pdf
Growing food in the desert: is this the solution to the world's food crisis?
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/24/growing-food-in-the-desert-crisis
hhopT gen 3.. ish..
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfb0ydtdr_M
Gravity mapped onto a specific gravity field frame of reference (solid, liquid,gas) is a scalar field with instant pressure communication; hhop has a definable vector within the scalar field.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar%E2%80%93tensor_theory
Scalar–tensor theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In theoretical physics, a scalar–tensor theory is a theory that includes both a scalar field and a tensor field to represent a certain interaction. For example, the Brans–Dicke theory of gravitation uses both a scalar field and a tensor field to mediate the gravitational interaction.
Contents
1 Tensor fields and field theory
2 Gravity as field theory
2.1 Mathematical formulation
2.1.1 The Newtonian approximation of the theory
2.1.2 The first post-Newtonian approximation of the theory
3 Observational constraints on the theory
4 Higher-dimensional relativity and scalar–tensor theories
5 Connection to string theory
6 Other possible scalar–tensor theories
6.1 Theories with non-minimal scalar-matter coupling
7 References
Tensor fields and field theory
Modern physics tries to derive all physical theories from as few principles as possible. In this way, Newtonian mechanics as well as quantum mechanics are derived from Hamilton's principle of least action. In this approach, the behavior of a system is not described via forces, but by functions which describe the energy of the system. Most important are the energetic quantities known as the Hamilton function (or Hamiltonian) and the Lagrange function (or Lagrangian). Their derivatives in space are known as Hamiltonian or Hamilton density and Lagrangian or Lagrange density. Going to these quantities leads to the field theories.
Modern physics uses field theories to explain reality. These fields can be scalar, vectorial or tensorial. For them, there is:
Scalars are tensors of rank zero.
Vectors are tensors of rank one.
Matrices are tensors of rank two.
Scalars are numbers, quantities of the form f(x), like the temperature. Vectors are more general and show a direction. In them, every component of the direction is a scalar. Tensors (degree 2) are a wider generalization, the best known example of which are matrices (that can give equation systems). Higher order tensors are found for example in the deformation theory and in General Relativity.
Gravity as field theory
In physics, forces (as vectorial quantities) are given as the derivative (gradient) of scalar quantities named potentials. In classical physics before Einstein, gravitation was given in the same way, as consequence of a gravitational force (vectorial), given through a scalar potential field, dependent of the mass of the particles. Thus, Newtonian gravity is called a scalar theory. The gravitational force is dependent of the distance r of the massive objects to each other (more exactly, their centre of mass). Mass is a parameter and space and time are unchangeable.
Einstein's theory of gravity, the General Relativity is of another nature. It unifies space and time in a 4-dimensional manifold called space-time that depends upon mass itself. In General Relativity there is no gravitational force, but instead a curvature of space-time. The curvature is a consequence of mass and in linear approximation it is identifiable with a force. This force is the derivative of the so-called metric as potential. The metric of General Relativity possesses the characteristics of space-time and it is a tensorial quantity of degree 2 (it can be given as a 4x4 matrix, an object carrying 2 indices).
Another possibility to explain gravitation in this context is by using both tensor (of degree n>1) and scalar fields, i.e. so that gravitation is not only given through a scalar field nor through the metric. These are scalar–tensor theories of gravitation.
The field theoretical start of General Relativity is given through the Lagrange density. It is a scalar and gauge invariant (look at gauge theories) quantity dependent on the curvature scalar R. This Lagrangian, following Hamilton's principle, leads to the field equations of Hilbert and Einstein. If in the Lagrangian the curvature (or a quantity related to it) is multiplied with a square scalar field, field theories of scalar–tensor theories of gravitation are obtained. In them, the gravitational constant of Newton is no longer a real constant but a quantity dependent of the scalar field.
Phase Transition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transition
A phase transition is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another one by heat transfer. The term is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter, and, in rare cases, plasma. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of the change of some external condition, such as temperature, pressure, or others. For example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to the boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The measurement of the external conditions at which the transformation occurs is termed the phase transition. Phase transitions are common in nature and used today in many technologies.
Should we be quibbling about teminology ? Yes, I think we should. Phase change and phase transition are often used to describe the same phenomena so it needs ironing out.
Faraday electrolysis (DC) will electrolytically split liquid water into Hydrogen and Oxygen gas, with a variable amount of water vapor and steam present in the gas product.
DC resistance will create a thermal heat transfer and water vapor acting as a gas will be created.
From this we can deduce that two different types of gas, with different properties to be exploited, can be created from identical electrical source inputs which are used differently.
On Earth we have water as the liquid within the specific gravity field and air as the gas layer which provides CO2. Methane is a potential product via various applications of the Sabatier reaction:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatier_reaction
"The stoichiometric ratio of oxidizer and fuel is 2:1, for an oxygen:methane engine."
hhop generates the electricity input required to make H + O from linear reciprocation within specific gravity field.
Lets have a look at some of the competition to hhop gen 3..
http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:_Hidro_--_Water_Pressures_Energy_Conversion_%28WAPEC%29
Electrolysis efficiency will be greater than air compression efficiency.
hhop gen 3 produces a fuel (Hydrogen + Oxygen) at the output 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year with the energy needed to do that provided by the manipulation of the specific gravity field.. You want clean renewable energy.. you just got it O0
Later on this evening I will examine the potential for hhop gen 3 technology to be applied to an alternative specific gravity field frame of reference.. how about Saturn's moon, Titan..
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3131423/Is-Titan-Earth-s-toxic-twin-Saturn-s-moon-Earth-like-polar-winds-waterfalls-rainfall-sea.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
Methane (/ˈmɛθeɪn/ or /ˈmiːθeɪn/) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4 (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen). It is the simplest alkane and the main component of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel, though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state found at standard conditions for temperature and pressure. In its natural state, methane is found both below ground, and under the sea floor, where it often finds its way to the surface and in the atmosphere of Earth where it is known as atmospheric methane.[5]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_the_outer_Solar_System
Many parts of the outer Solar System have been considered for possible future colonization. Most of the larger moons of the outer planets contain water ice, liquid water, and organic compounds that might be useful for sustaining human life.[1][2]
Colonies in the outer Solar System could also serve as centers for long-term investigation of the planet and the other moons. In particular, robotic devices could be controlled by humans without the very long time delays needed to communicate with Earth.
There have also been proposals to place robotic aerostats in the upper atmospheres of the Solar System's gas giant planets for exploration and possibly mining of helium-3, which could have a very high value per unit mass as a thermonuclear fuel.[3][4]
Dr. Robert Zubrin has pointed out that Titan possesses an abundance of all the elements necessary to support life, saying "In certain ways, Titan is the most hospitable extraterrestrial world within our solar system for human colonization." [6] The atmosphere contains plentiful nitrogen and methane, and strong evidence indicates that liquid methane exists on the surface. Evidence also indicates the presence of liquid water and ammonia under the surface, which are delivered to the surface by volcanic activity. Water can easily be used to generate breathable oxygen and nitrogen is ideal to add buffer gas partial pressure to breathable air (it forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere).[7] Nitrogen, methane and ammonia can all be used to produce fertilizer for growing food.
hhop gen 3+ 8)
Purification methods
Distilled water is produced by a process of distillation and has an electrical conductivity of not more than 11 µS/cm and total dissolved solids of less than 10 mg/litre.[1] Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing the vapor into a clean container, leaving solid contaminants behind. Distillation produces very pure water. A white or yellowish mineral scale is left in the distillation apparatus, which requires regular cleaning. Distillation alone does not guarantee the absence of bacteria in drinking water unless containers are also sterilized. For many procedures, more economical alternatives are available, such as deionized water, and are used in place of distilled water.
Double distillation
Double-distilled water (abbreviated "ddH2O", "Bidest. water" or "DDW") is prepared by slow boiling the uncontaminated condensed water vapor from a prior slow boiling. Historically, it was the de facto standard for highly purified laboratory water for biochemistry and used in laboratory trace analysis until combination purification methods of water purification became widespread.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purified_water#Double_distillation
Heat from hho flame to distill. Multi stage apparatus. Combined heat and power. Gravity differential input potable water out. Scaleable. :'(
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PivWY9wn5ps
>:-)
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.06.23, 19:25:49
Heat from hho flame to distill.
Heat from hho flame to Sabatier reaction:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatier_reaction
It has been proposed in a renewable-energy-dominated energy system to use the excess electricity generated by wind, solar photovoltaic, hydro, marine current, etc. to make methane (natural gas) via water electrolysis and the subsequent application of the Sabatier reaction.[1][2] In contrast to a direct usage of hydrogen for transport or energy storage applications,[3] the methane can be injected into the existing gas network, which in many countries has one or two years of gas storage capacity. The methane can then be used on demand to generate electricity (and heat—combined heat and power) overcoming low points of renewable energy production. The process is electrolysis of water by electricity to create hydrogen (which can partly be used directly in fuel cells) and the addition of carbon dioxide CO2 (Sabatier process) to create methane. The CO2 can be extracted from the air or fossil fuel waste gases by the amine process, amongst many others. It is a low-CO2 system, and has similar efficiencies of today's energy system. A 250 kW demonstration plant was ready in 2012 in Germany.[4]
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/mars/marssurf.html
Carbon dioxide electrolysis is a possible solution to the oxygen deficit problem. While still under development, this process uses zirconia cells at high temperatures to decompose carbon dioxide. This process could be performed on Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide, producing oxygen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide would be vented into the atmosphere and the oxygen would be cryogenically stored for use as MAV propellant and/or life support reserves for the crew.
QuoteThe carbon monoxide would be vented into the atmosphere
Flammability limits of hydrogen–carbon monoxide mixtures at moderately elevated temperatureshttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319900001142
Abstract
Consistent data for the flammability limits of different hydrogen–carbon monoxide mixtures were determined experimentally over a wide range of compositions and initial temperatures up to (300°C) and at atmospheric pressure for upward flame propagation in a stainless-steel test tube apparatus. Experimental results also showed that the lean flammability limits of hydrogen–carbon monoxide mixtures obeyed Le Chatelier's Rule over the entire range of temperature considered when the corresponding individual limit values of the components were employed. However, the rich flammability limits deviated very significantly from the corresponding values calculated using this Rule, especially for mixtures containing small concentrations of hydrogen. The rich limits predicted by the Rule were narrower than those obtained experimentally. To investigate the existence of pre-ignition reactions at these levels of temperature and their effect on the flammability limits, the hydrogen–carbon monoxide–air mixtures were exposed to elevated temperatures over different periods of time varying from 5 to 30 min before spark ignition was employed to establish whether the mixture is flammable or not. It was shown that duration of the waiting time before spark ignition affected significantly the values of the flammability limits especially at higher temperatures and for rich mixtures. Additionally, the effect of the presence of water vapour in the fuel–air mixture was investigated.
hhop gen 3+ 8)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight
Definitions
Several definitions exist for weight, not all of which are equivalent.[3][7][8][9]
Gravitational definition
The most common definition of weight found in introductory physics textbooks defines weight as the force exerted on a body by gravity.[1][9] This is often expressed in the formula W = mg, where W is the weight, m the mass of the object, and g gravitational acceleration.
In 1901, the 3rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) established this as their official definition of weight:
"The word weight denotes a quantity of the same nature[Note 1] as a force: the weight of a body is the product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity."
— Resolution 2 of the 3rd General Conference on Weights and Measures[11][12]
This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining:
"The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the gravitational force on the body."[13]
The gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to a have a standard value of 9.80665 m/s2, which gives the standard weight.[11]
The force whose magnitude is equal to mg newtons is also known as the m kilogram weight (which term is abbreviated to kg-wt)[14]
Operational definition
In the operational definition, the weight of an object is the force measured by the operation of weighing it, which is the force it exerts on its support.[7] This can make a considerable difference, depending on the details; for example, an object in free fall exerts little if any force on its support, a situation that is commonly referred to as weightlessness. However, being in free fall does not affect the weight according to the gravitational definition. Therefore, the operational definition is sometimes refined by requiring that the object be at rest.[citation needed] However, this raises the issue of defining "at rest" (usually being at rest with respect to the Earth is implied by using standard gravity[citation needed]). In the operational definition, the weight of an object at rest on the surface of the Earth is lessened by the effect of the centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation.
The operational definition, as usually given, does not explicitly exclude the effects of buoyancy, which reduces the measured weight of an object when it is immersed in a fluid such as air or water. As a result, a floating balloon or an object floating in water might be said to have zero weight.
ISO definition
In the ISO International standard ISO 80000-4(2006),[15] describing the basic physical quantities and units in mechanics as a part of the International standard ISO/IEC 80000, the definition of weight is given as:
Definition
F_g = mg
where m is mass and g is local acceleration of free fall.
Remarks
It should be noted that, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity comprises not only the local gravitational force, but also the local centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth, a force which varies with latitude.
The effect of atmospheric buoyancy is excluded in the weight.
In common parlance, the name "weight" continues to be used where "mass" is meant, but this practice is deprecated.
— ISO 80000-4 (2006)
The definition is dependent on the chosen frame of reference. When the chosen frame is co-moving with the object in question then this definition precisely agrees with the operational definition.[8] If the specified frame is the surface of the Earth, the weight according to the ISO and gravitational definitions differ only by the centrifugal effects due to the rotation of the Earth.
:)
The eco-friendly batmobile: BMW reveals hydrogen 'stealth' prototype can go 300 miles on a tank (and refill in five minutes)
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3148876/BMW-reveals-eco-friendly-batmobile-New-hydrogen-prototype-300-miles-tank-refill-five-minutes.html#comments
Petrol or LPG ... do the fuel cost savings add up?
http://www.theguardian.com/money/2012/jul/13/petrol-lpg-fuel-cost-savings
Liquefied petroleum gas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas
Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply propane or butane, are flammable mixtures of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant[citation needed], replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C3H8), primarily butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane. In winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane.
Methane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane
Methane (/ˈmɛθeɪn/ or /ˈmiːθeɪn/) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4 (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen). It is the simplest alkane and the main component of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel, though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state found at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
Sabatier reaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatier_reaction
The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s. It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures (optimally 300–400 °C) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water.
Energy storage
It has been proposed in a renewable-energy-dominated energy system to use the excess electricity generated by wind, solar photovoltaic, hydro, marine current, etc. to make methane (natural gas) via water electrolysis and the subsequent application of the Sabatier reaction.[1][2] In contrast to a direct usage of hydrogen for transport or energy storage applications,[3] the methane can be injected into the existing gas network, which in many countries has one or two years of gas storage capacity. The methane can then be used on demand to generate electricity (and heat—combined heat and power) overcoming low points of renewable energy production. The process is electrolysis of water by electricity to create hydrogen (which can partly be used directly in fuel cells) and the addition of carbon dioxide CO2 (Sabatier process) to create methane. The CO2 can be extracted from the air or fossil fuel waste gases by the amine process, amongst many others. It is a low-CO2 system, and has similar efficiencies of today's energy system. A 250 kW demonstration plant was ready in 2012 in Germany.[4]
hhop gen 3 is designed to produce Hydrogen and Oxygen from water with gravity providing the power input prime mover energy source. 8)
Ethane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethane
Ethane was first synthesised in 1834 by Michael Faraday, applying electrolysis of a potassium acetate solution. He mistook the hydrocarbon product of this reaction for methane, and did not investigate it further.[4] During the period 1847–1849, in an effort to vindicate the radical theory of organic chemistry, Hermann Kolbe and Edward Frankland produced ethane by the reductions of propionitrile (ethyl cyanide)[5] and ethyl iodide[6] with potassium metal, and, as did Faraday, by the electrolysis of aqueous acetates. They, however, mistook the product of these reactions for methyl radical, rather than the dimer of methyl, ethane. This error was corrected in 1864 by Carl Schorlemmer, who showed that the product of all these reactions was in fact ethane.[7]
The name ethane is derived from the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry. "Eth-" refers to the presence of 2 carbon atoms, and "-ane" refers to the presence of a single bond between them.
In the laboratory, ethane may be conveniently prepared by Kolbe electrolysis. In this technique, an aqueous solution of an acetate salt is electrolysed. At the anode, acetate is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and methyl radicals, and the highly reactive methyl radicals combine to produce ethane.
Acetic acid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid
Acetic acid /əˈsiːtɨk/, systematically named ethanoic acid /ˌɛθəˈnoʊɨk/, is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH3COOH (also written as CH3CO2H or C2H4O2). It is a colourless liquid that when undiluted is also called glacial acetic acid. Vinegar is roughly 3-9% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water. Acetic acid has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. Besides its production as household vinegar, it is mainly produced as a precursor to polyvinylacetate and cellulose acetate. Although it is classified as a weak acid, concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and can attack the skin.
Acetic acid is the second simplest carboxylic acid (after formic acid) and is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, mainly used in the production of cellulose acetate for photographic film and polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, as well as synthetic fibers and fabrics. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling agents. In the food industry, acetic acid is used under the food additive code E260 as an acidity regulator and as a condiment. As a food additive it is approved for usage in many countries, including Canada,[8] the European Union,[9] the United States,[10] and Australia and New Zealand.[11]
The global demand of acetic acid is around 6.5 million tonnes per year (Mt/a), of which approximately 1.5 Mt/a is met by recycling; the remainder is manufactured from petrochemical feedstock.[12] As a chemical reagent, biological sources of acetic acid are of interest, but generally uncompetitive. Vinegar is dilute acetic acid, often produced by fermentation and subsequent oxidation of ethanol.
Propane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propane
Propane (/ˈproʊpeɪn/) is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula C3H8, normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, portable stoves, and residential central heating. Propane is one of a group of liquefied petroleum gases (LP gases). The others include butane, propylene, butadiene, butylene, isobutylene and mixtures thereof.
Propane containing too much propene (also called propylene) is not suited for most vehicle fuels. HD-5 is a specification that establishes a maximum concentration of 5% propene in propane. Propane and other LP gas specifications are established in ASTM D-1835.[5] All propane fuels include an odorant, almost always ethanethiol, so that people can easily smell the gas in case of a leak. Propane as HD-5 was originally intended for use as vehicle fuel. HD-5 is currently being used in all propane applications.
Turning methane into usable liquid fuel
http://www.rdmag.com/news/2014/08/turning-methane-usable-liquid-fuel
Researchers from the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE)'s Argonne National Laboratory and the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) were awarded $2 million over the course of two years to fund studies on hybrid fuel cells from the Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy (ARPA-E).
ARPA-E, an agency within the DOE, was specially created to fund high-risk, high-reward energy research projects and was modeled after the similar defense agency, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA. Argonne was one of 13 projects aimed at developing new fuel cell technology as part of ARPA-E's Reliable Electricity Based on Electrochemical Systems (REBELS) program.
The research seeks to create a fuel cell that would both produce electricity and convert methane gas to ethane or ethylene that could then be converted to a liquid fuel or valuable chemicals. These cells could use natural gas—which is mostly made up of methane—directly.
With the advent of shale gas drilling techniques, methane is fairly abundant and frequently produced as a byproduct in drilling operations. Unfortunately, it is often burned off because it is expensive to transport in gas form, and few natural gas pipelines exist. Finding a less expensive way to instead turn that methane into liquid fuel—such as the hybrid fuel cell promises—could reduce waste and provide energy.
In the fuel cell, researchers plan to add a catalyst that helps make the reaction more efficient, breaking methane up and recombining it into hydrogen—which is then consumed by the fuel cell—and ethylene. The hope is that combining the steps will make the reaction more efficient.
"The ethylene is just a first step, a placeholder for proof-of-concept," said Argonne chemical engineer Ted Krause, who is heading the project. "The overall goal is to produce liquid fuel from methane."
Turning Carbon Dioxide and Methane into Liquid Fuels
http://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/Turning-Carbon-Dioxide-and-Methane-into-Liquid-Fuels.html
Liviu M. Mirica, PhD, assistant professor of chemistry at Washington University in St. Louis may have found and is developing a novel metal catalyst that would be able to turn greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide into liquid fuels without producing more carbon waste in the process.
Mirica describes a new metal complex that can combine methyl groups (CH3) in the presence of oxygen to produce ethane (CH3-CH3) in the Journal of the American Chemical Society.
So far the return to fuel from combustion products has been a losing proposition because making carbon dioxide into a fuel uses up more energy than combustion releases and produces more carbon dioxide than it reclaims. Mirica asserts, with some evidence now, it's not impossible.
This could put a whole new take on petroleum and carbohydrate fuels, instead of being a polluting one-way street, hydrocarbon chemistry could circle back on itself and become a clean carbon-neutral cycle, even though still consuming some energy.
The new catalyst combines methyl groups (CH3) molecules in the presence of oxygen to produce ethane, the second step in the conversion of methane (CH4), the main component of natural gas, into a longer-chain hydrocarbon, or liquid fuel. Mirica's team is currently tweaking the complex so that it will be perform the firs step in the methane-to-ethane conversion, too.
Hydrocarbons are so useful because they pack energy in their chemical bonds and release that energy when they are burned. Thus, they're essentially convenient little energy packages. Reactions that release energy, however, are reluctant to reverse themselves and the more energy they release, the more reluctant they are to return.
So far there's no way around this problem; if a reaction released energy both going forward and going backward, it could fuel a perpetual motion machine, which, of course, is an impossibility. But, it's possible to make hydrocarbon combustion reactions run backward — either by brute force or by finesse.
The brute force way is to pump in energy. Old technology such as used to convert coal to oil worked only at high temperatures and pressures and much more energy was used to drive the reactions than was ultimately stored in synthetic oil they produced.
The finesse path is to devise a chemical compound, a catalyst that takes the reactants up an alternative, lower energy pathway to the reaction-produced products. In effect, instead of going straight up the energy hill, the reaction takes a more manageable — ideally the minimal-energy– series of switchbacks up to the top.
The background: Last year Mirica's group was working with a palladium compound that they hoped could catalyze the splitting of water. "The catalyst we made for that reaction worked," says Mirica, "but not as well as we hoped. But we noticed it was easily oxidized, even by the oxygen in air. This was our first hint that this might be an interesting system. So then we asked what else we could use it for."
"One of our ideas was to use it to turn methane into ethane." Methane, the main component of natural gas, is released sometimes in large amounts when an oil well is first tapped. Turning methane to ethane, says Mirica, could be the first step in a process of building longer-chain hydrocarbons such as butane and octane, which are liquid at convenient temperatures and pressures and so could easily be transported to distant users.
hhop gen 3 manipulates the specific gravity field to provide a gravitational energy input and an electrical system output, with hho (Hydrogen + Oxygen + Water Vapour) waste product ejected as gas exhaust on each cycle.
hhop gen 3 Specific Gravity Pump 8)
hhop gen 3 Specific Gravity Pump 8)
1) Spring loaded NRV has a cracking pressure slightly > a, which is the force exerted on the NRV outlet by the weight of water in the lower chamber (below the piston face), designated a.
2) Water reservoir inlet valve opens and upper chamber fills to weight b, which is = a, and the cracking pressure of the magnet supporting weight b. The seal prevents chamber b from transmitting hydraulic pressure to chamber a, which would open the NRV outlet prematurely.
3) Weight b pumps fluid a, leveraging pascals hydraulic principle and driving the turbine alternator to produce electricity. 1.5 psi of fluid pressure is lost as work done pumping through 1 meter of height.
4) Chamber b has assumed the position previously occupied by chamber a. The piston is now injected with hho and the water is displaced, reducing the density of the piston body which will now rise. Hydraulic pressure equalisation valve opens to aid piston seal liquid flow resistance.
5) Piston ascends being more buoyant than the water it is submerged in.
6) Piston seals with a magnetic holding force = a. hho exhaust valve opens and the piston bleeds hydraulically. Pressure equalisation valve closes, water reservoir inlet valve opens and the cycle repeats.
Single Acting Piston Seals
http://www.martins-rubber.co.uk/products/seals/piston-seals/single-acting-piston-seals/
Single Acting Piston Seals of all types and materials, in all sizes.
The function of a Single Acting Piston Seal is to contain pressure on one side of a piston without leakage and therefore allow maximum effort to be applied to moving the piston along the bore of a cylinder. Single Acting pistons only contain pressure on one side of the piston, and the seal is required to retain pressure from that direction, which then moves the piston along the cylinder, in a "Single Action". The return stroke of the cylinder must be powered by mechanical energisation or possibly a simple gravity return. Consideration needs to be given to the pressures expected, the friction losses acceptable, whether a single acting capability is required, and whether the piston head is integral or split.
The function of a Single Acting Piston Seal is to contain pressure on one side of a piston without leakage and therefore allow maximum mechanical effort to be applied to moving the piston along the bore of a cylinder. They can be driven either hydraulically or pneumatically, with appropriate seal designs for each system, and application. The seal is intended to prevent leakage across the piston and thus maximise the efficiency of system; pressure is applied in one direction only, to drive the ram rod that the piston is fixed to along the cylinder in a "Single Action". The return stroke of the ram, once pressure is released, must be powered by another mechanical means such as a spring if necessary, or perhaps a simple gravity return driven by the mass that the ram has moved (or manipulating the specific gravity field to reset the piston). Individual seal profile designs show specific behaviours and performance, which need to be in line with the application´s requirement. The material chosen will also influence the choice of seal profile. When determining the best seal design and material for a particular application, consideration needs to be given to the pressures expected, the friction losses acceptable, and whether the piston head is integral or split.
The design of the piston head is important, as this will dictate what types of seal profile and material can be used in the application. Many high pressure systems require very stiff, robust seals and the associated guide rings to control the action of the piston. In such cases, it is usual to split the piston into several parts so that the seals do not need to be stretched over the piston head and snapped into place, but can simply be assembled in place and the piston head bolted on to the ram rod with a securing nut, once fully built up.
Hydraulic machinery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example.
In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and which becomes pressurised according to the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering medium.
Force and torque multiplication
A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and output, without the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the effective areas in two connected cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev) between a pump and motor. In normal cases, hydraulic ratios are combined with a mechanical force or torque ratio for optimum machine designs such as boom movements and trackdrives for an excavator.
Accumulators
Accumulators are a common part of hydraulic machinery. Their function is to store energy by using pressurized gas. One type is a tube with a floating piston. On one side of the piston is a charge of pressurized gas, and on the other side is the fluid. Bladders are used in other designs. Reservoirs store a system's fluid.
Examples of accumulator uses are backup power for steering or brakes, or to act as a shock absorber for the hydraulic circuit.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_accumulator
The first accumulators for Armstrong's hydraulic dock machinery were simple raised water towers. Water was pumped to a tank at the top of these towers by steam pumps. When dock machinery required hydraulic power, the hydrostatic head of the water's height above ground provided the necessary pressure.
These simple towers were extremely tall. One of the best known, Grimsby Dock Tower opened in 1852, is 300 feet (91 m) tall. The size of these towers made them expensive to construct. By the time Grimsby was opened, it was already obsolete as Armstrong had developed the more complex, but much smaller, weighted accumulator. These simple tower accumulators were constructed for less than a decade. In 1892 the original Grimsby tower's function was replaced by a smaller weighted accumulator on an adjacent dock, although the tower remains to this day as a well-known landmark.
Raised weight
A raised weight accumulator consists of a vertical cylinder containing fluid connected to the hydraulic line. The cylinder is closed by a piston on which a series of weights are placed that exert a downward force on the piston and thereby energizes the fluid in the cylinder. In contrast to compressed gas and spring accumulators, this type delivers a nearly constant pressure, regardless of the volume of fluid in the cylinder, until it is empty. (The pressure will decline somewhat as the cylinder is emptied due to the decline in weight of the remaining fluid.)
A working example of this type of accumulator may be found at the hydraulic engine house, Bristol Harbour.[1] The external accumulator was added around 1920. The water is pumped from the harbour into a header tank and then fed by gravity to the pumps. The working pressure is 750 psi (5.2 MPa, or 52 bar) which is used to power the cranes, bridges and locks of Bristol Harbour.
The original operating mechanism of Tower Bridge, London, also used this type of accumulator. Although no longer in use, two of the six accumulators may still be seen in situ in the bridge's museum.
Regent's Canal Dock, now named Limehouse Basin has the remains of a hydraulic accumulator, dating from 1869, a fragment of the oldest remaining such facility in the world, the second at the dock, which was installed later than that at Poplar Dock, originally listed incorrectly as a signalling cabin for the London and Blackwall Railway, when correctly identified, it was restored as a tourist attraction by the now defunct London Docklands Development Corporation. Now owned by the British Waterways Board, it is open for large groups on application to the Dockmaster's Office at the basin and on both the afternoons of London Open House Weekend, held on the third weekend of September each year.
London had an extensive public hydraulic power system from the mid-nineteenth century finally closing in the 1970s with 5 hydraulic power stations, operated by the London Hydraulic Power Company. Railway goods yards and docks often had their own separate system.
Functioning of an accumulator
In modern, often mobile, hydraulic systems the preferred item is a gas charged accumulator, but simple systems may be spring-loaded. There may be more than one accumulator in a system. The exact type and placement of each may be a compromise due to its effects and the costs of manufacture.
An accumulator is placed close to the pump with a non-return valve preventing flow back to the pump. In the case of piston-type pumps this accumulator is placed in the ideal location to absorb pulsations of energy from the multi-piston pump. It also helps protect the system from fluid hammer. This protects system components, particularly pipework, from both potentially destructive forces.
An additional benefit is the additional energy that can be stored while the pump is subject to low demand. The designer can use a smaller-capacity pump. The large excursions of system components, such as landing gear on a large aircraft, that require a considerable volume of fluid can also benefit from one or more accumulators. These are often placed close to the demand to help overcome restrictions and drag from long pipework runs. The outflow of energy from a discharging accumulator is much greater, for a short time, than even large pumps could generate.
An accumulator can maintain the pressure in a system for periods when there are slight leaks without the pump being cycled on and off constantly. When temperature changes cause pressure excursions the accumulator helps absorb them. Its size helps absorb fluid that might otherwise be locked in a small fixed system with no room for expansion due to valve arrangement.
The gas precharge in an accumulator is set so that the separating bladder, diaphragm or piston does not reach or strike either end of the operating cylinder. The design precharge normally ensures that the moving parts do not foul the ends or block fluid passages. Poor maintenance of precharge can destroy an operating accumulator. A properly designed and maintained accumulator should operate trouble-free for years.
hhop gen 3 Basic Theory Information 8)
Water tower
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower
A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of potable water, and to provide emergency storage for fire protection. In some places, the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower, especially one with tall and narrow proportions.[1] Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs, which store treated water close to where it will be used.[2] Other types of water towers may only store raw (non-potable) water for fire protection or industrial purposes, and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply.
Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages, because they rely on hydrostatic pressure produced by elevation of water (due to gravity) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems; however, they cannot supply the water for a long time without power, because a pump is typically required to refill the tower. A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day, and then a pump fills it back up during the night. This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather, since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled.[citation needed]
Although the use of elevated water storage tanks has existed since ancient times in various forms, the modern use of water towers for pressurized public water systems developed during the mid-19th century, as steam-pumping became more common, and better pipes that could handle higher pressures were developed. In Great Britain, standpipes consisted of tall, exposed, inverted u-shaped pipes, used for pressure relief and to provide a fixed elevation for steam-driven pumping engines which tended to produce a pulsing flow, while the pressurized water distribution system required constant pressure. Standpipes also provided a convenient fixed location to measure flow rates. Designers typically enclosed the riser pipes in decorative masonry or wooden structures. By the late 19th-Century, standpipes grew to include storage tanks to meet the ever-increasing demands of growing cities.[1]
Many early water towers are now considered historically significant and have been included in various heritage listings around the world. Some are converted to apartments or exclusive penthouses.[3] In certain areas, such as New York City in the United States, smaller water towers are constructed for individual buildings. In California and some other states, domestic water towers enclosed by siding (tankhouses) were once built (1850s–1930s) to supply individual homes; windmills pumped water from hand-dug wells up into the tank.
Design and construction
A variety of materials can be used to construct a typical water tower; steel and reinforced or prestressed concrete are most often used (with wood, fiberglass, or brick also in use), incorporating an interior coating to protect the water from any effects from the lining material. The reservoir in the tower may be spherical, cylindrical, or an ellipsoid, with a minimum height of approximately 6 metres (20 ft) and a minimum of 4 m (13 ft) in diameter.[citation needed] A standard water tower typically has a height of approximately 40 m (130 ft).
Pressurization occurs through the hydrostatic pressure of the elevation of water; for every 10.20 centimetres (4.016 in) of elevation, it produces 1 kilopascal (0.145 psi) of pressure. 30 m (98.43 ft) of elevation produces roughly 300 kPa (43.511 psi), which is enough pressure to operate and provide for most domestic water pressure and distribution system requirements.
Shooter's Hill water tower is a local landmark in London, United Kingdom. Water towers are common around London suburbs.
The height of the tower provides the pressure for the water supply system, and it may be supplemented with a pump. The volume of the reservoir and diameter of the piping provide and sustain flow rate. However, relying on a pump to provide pressure is expensive; to keep up with varying demand, the pump would have to be sized to meet peak demands. During periods of low demand, jockey pumps are used to meet these lower water flow requirements. The water tower reduces the need for electrical consumption of cycling pumps and thus the need for an expensive pump control system, as this system would have to be sized sufficiently to give the same pressure at high flow rates.
Very high volumes and flow rates are needed when fighting fires. With a water tower present, pumps can be sized for average demand, not peak demand; the water tower can provide water pressure during the day and pumps will refill the water tower when demands are lower.
Using wireless sensor networks to monitor water levels inside the tower allows municipalities to automatically monitor and control pumps without installing and maintaining expensive data cables.[4]
I have put one water tower 'b' on top of another water tower 'a'.. I have isolated the hydrostatic pressure equalisation potential for both chambers, from each other via the piston. System open to atmospheric pressure on both columns. Chamber b acts as a Mass only, gravity filled. Chamber a always has hydrostatic pressure, with bias set by NRV resistance (psi cracking pressure). 1.5 psi loss for every 1 meter of output column elevation, therefore pressure loss through elevation (pumping vertically) considered negligible in a 1 meter high system. Leverage Pascal's principle to extend run time and increase pressure at the expense of flow rate. The electrical energy required to complete the electrolytic reset of the hollow piston will become a constant, and the run time on the turbine at a given RPM will also, so when they match you have COP=1. Increase the sizes of reservoirs a and b and extend the run time of the the water wheel alternator therefore COP>1 becomes a variable. The specific gravity field provides the force to reset the piston, with only minimal interaction of the medium it is submersed in (liquid water).
Pascal's law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_law
Pascal's law or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal's Principle[1][2][3]) is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure variations (initial differences) remain the same.[4] The law was established by French mathematician Blaise Pascal.[5]
If a U-tube is filled with water and pistons are placed at each end, pressure exerted against the left piston will be transmitted throughout the liquid and against the bottom of the right piston. (The pistons are simply "plugs" that can slide freely but snugly inside the tube.) The pressure that the left piston exerts against the water will be exactly equal to the pressure the water exerts against the right piston. Suppose the tube on the right side is made wider and a piston of a larger area is used; for example, the piston on the right has 50 times the area of the piston on the left. If a 1 N load is placed on the left piston, an additional pressure due to the weight of the load is transmitted throughout the liquid and up against the larger piston. The difference between force and pressure is important: the additional pressure is exerted against the entire area of the larger piston. Since there is 50 times the area, 50 times as much force is exerted on the larger piston. Thus, the larger piston will support a 50 N load - fifty times the load on the smaller piston.
Forces can be multiplied using such a device. One newton input produces 50 newtons output. By further increasing the area of the larger piston (or reducing the area of the smaller piston), forces can be multiplied, in principle, by any amount. Pascal's principle underlies the operation of the hydraulic press. The hydraulic press does not violate energy conservation, because a decrease in distance moved compensates for the increase in force. When the small piston is moved downward 10 centimeters, the large piston will be raised only one-fiftieth of this, or 0.2 centimeters. The input force multiplied by the distance moved by the smaller piston is equal to the output force multiplied by the distance moved by the larger piston; this is one more example of a simple machine operating on the same principle as a mechanical lever.
Pascal's principle applies to all fluids, whether gases or liquids. A typical application of Pascal's principle for gases and liquids is the automobile lift seen in many service stations (the hydraulic jack). Increased air pressure produced by an air compressor is transmitted through the air to the surface of oil in an underground reservoir. The oil, in turn, transmits the pressure to a piston, which lifts the automobile. The relatively low pressure that exerts the lifting force against the piston is about the same as the air pressure in automobile tires. Hydraulics is employed by modern devices ranging from very small to enormous. For example, there are hydraulic pistons in almost all construction machines where heavy loads are involved.
http://www.rockyhydro.com/Micro-Hydro_Basics.php
Converting the Energy - The device used to capture the energy of the flowing water is the turbine. There are many different types of turbines, but they can be broken down into two different groups - impulse and reaction.
Impulse turbines such as a pelton wheel or a turgo work best when there is a relatively small amount of flow but a relatively large amount of head. The high pressure water stream hits the turbine paddle or spoon, forcing it to turn. The spoons of a turgo and pelton turbine are curved, so the water doesn't just hit a paddle and fall away, the water actually does a 180 degree turn. The extra force of causing the water to completely change directions makes the turbine spin even faster.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_hydro
Head and flow characteristics
Microhydro systems are typically set up in areas capable of producing up to 100 kilowatts of electricity.[3] This can be enough to power a home or small business facility. This production range is calculated in terms of "head" and "flow". The higher each of these are, the more power available. "Head" is the pressure measurement of falling water expressed as a function of the vertical distance the water falls.[3] This change in elevation is usually measured in feet or meters. A drop of at least 2 feet is required or the system may not be feasible.[4] When quantifying head, both gross and net head must be considered.[4] Gross head approximates power accessibility through the vertical distance measurement alone whereas net head subtracts pressure lost due to friction in piping from the gross head.[4] "Flow" is the actual quantity of water falling from a site and is usually measured in gallons per minute, cubic feet per second, or liters per second.[5]
Power from such a system can be calculated by the equation P=Q*H/k, where Q is the flow rate in gallons per minute, H is the head loss, and k is a constant of 5,310 gal*ft/min*kW.[citation needed] For instance, for a system with a flow of 500 gallons per minute and a head loss of 60 feet, the theoretical maximum power output is 5.65 kW. The system is prevented from 100% efficiency (from obtaining all 5.65 kW) due to the real world, such as: turbine efficiency, friction in pipe, and conversion from potential to kinetic energy. Turbine efficiency is generally between 50-80%, and pipe friction is accounted for using the Hazen–Williams equation.[citation needed]
To account for efficiency, simply multiply the theoretical by the efficiency. In this example, if the plant's efficiency was 90%, then 5.65 kW*0.9= 5.085 kW.
Advantages and disadvantages
System advantages
Microhydro power is generated through a process that utilizes the natural flow of water.[12] This power is most commonly converted into electricity. With no direct emissions resulting from this conversion process, there are little to no harmful effects on the environment, if planned well, thus supplying power from a renewable source and in a sustainable manner. Microhydro is considered a "run-of-river" system meaning that water diverted from the stream or river is redirected back into the same watercourse.[13] Adding to the potential economic benefits of microhydro is efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness.[13]
System disadvantages
Microhydro systems are limited mainly by characteristics of the site. The most direct limitation comes from small sources with minuscule flow. Likewise, flow can fluctuate seasonally in some areas.[13] Lastly, though perhaps the foremost disadvantage is the distance from the power source to the site in need of energy.[13] This distributional issue as well as the others are key when considering using a microhydro system.
Weight-Loaded Accumulators
http://www.accumulators-hyd.com/accumulators.html
The first real accumulators were weight-loaded types and these are still applicable where there is considerable headroom available with overhead gantries or lifting mechanisms plus factory space at a reasonable cost. They are nearly always used in a ring main system that supplies a department or complete factory with its hydraulic power.
Weight-loaded accumulators continue to be used to meet heavy industrial requirements and large units usually employ water as the fluid. The large weight-loaded accumulator offers the advantage of extremely high capacity at relatively low cost per unit volume. Construction is rugged and durable, and the units are capable of accommodating shock loads. Only simple control gear is necessary.
The disadvantages of a weight-loaded accumulator are:
The accumulator is extremely bulky and heavy and thus could not be considered where space or weight saving is an important factor.
Pressure output is not constant, largely due to the effects of seal friction and inertia.
Certain restrictions are imposed on delivery, largely due to limitations on falling speed to minimize hydraulic shock.
The seals themselves may pose problems, both in providing adequate sealing with low friction when they are used with such a low viscosity fluid as water, and when expected to give long seal life. Where such an accumulator is used as a central source, failure of the seals would result in loss of supply to all the hydraulic machines on the circuit.
The basic design of a weight-loaded accumulator is shown in Fig. 1. A heavy walled cylinder is mounted vertically on a substantial base and carries a ram. A crosshead is attached to the top of the ram, from which is slung a weight box. This is filled with any high density waste, such as ballast, iron scrap, concrete, etc. Alternatively, in the case of smaller units, special made weights may be slung from the ends of the crosshead.
There are two main types, depending on the method of constraining the weights or weight box. On a self-guided design the weight case is provided with internal guides. On externally-guided designs the weight case is constrained against radial movement by external guides or channels, usually mounted on a steel structure. The latter type is normally preferred to large high pressure accumulators to minimize bending stresses.
The ram is raised by pumping fluid (water) into the cylinder. Once raised, the fluid in the cylinder is pressurized by the combination of the weights and ram acting on the cross sectional area of the fluid column. The theoretical pressure available is thus given by:
Pressure (Bar) = 0.03Wt
D2
Where Wt = total weight in kilograms
D = ram diameter in centimeters
Pressure (psi) = 1.274Wt
D2
Where Wt = total weight in pounds
D = ram diameter in inches
In practice the nominal pressure available will be a little less, due to seal friction opposing downward motion. Pressure variations are also likely to occur with differences or variations in falling speed. Thus a pressure variation of 5% is likely to be experienced with a maximum falling speed of 0.3 meters per second (1 foot per second), but may be higher with higher falling speeds. Momentary peak pressures may also be higher or lower than the nominal pressure by an appreciable amount, depending on the rate of deceleration or acceleration of the ram, respectively.
Falling speed can be controlled by the stroke/bore ratio of the ram. A stroke/bore ratio of between 10 and 15 is commonly adopted for accumulators working up to 105 Bar (1500psi), although higher ratios are generally to be preferred for higher pressures. This, however, increases the problem of obtaining mechanical rigidity and also increases the overall height of the accumulator. This could make it unsuitable for indoor installation. As a rough guide, the overall height of a weight-loaded accumulator is at least twice the stroke.
Cast iron cylinders are commonly employed for accumulators working up to 105 Bar (1500psi). Cast steel or forged steel cylinders are used for higher pressures. Honed bores are required, although satisfactory performance may be obtained with rougher bores using leather seals. Rams may be made from cast iron (the original choice and still widely employed), but preferably chrome plated. Stainless steel or alloy steel rams are more usual on smaller sizes of modern weight-loaded accumulators.
Variations in the overall design include the type with a fixed ram and sliding cylinder, and also the differential weight-loaded accumulator. The latter is essentially a lower capacity device, but one capable of providing very high fluid pressures with a relatively low loaded weight. Construction takes the form of a fixed ram with the lower part fitted with a sleeve to increase its diameter. The cylinder slides over the ram and is fitted with weights, the sliding system being either internally or externally guided. The difference in ram diameter and sleeve diameter is relatively small, providing a substantial pressure amplifying effect – Fig. 2.
Control of a weight-loaded accumulator is essentially simple and straightforward. Normal safety devices employed with a continuous running pump include a relief valve which opens automatically to relieve pressure should the ram be raised beyond its normal upper position, and a bypass valve to relieve the system of pressure build-up should all controls fail with the pump still working. If the pump is operated on a "stop-start" basis, pump switching can be controlled mechanically by tappets on the moving assembly operating the pump starter or pump motor at the bottom of the stroke and stopping the pump when the ram reaches the top of its stroke. A typical control circuit is shown in Fig. 3 with automatic starting and stopping of the pump, together with an offloading valve to reduce peak load on starting up the pump.
hhop gen 3 is designed to use gravitational energy as the input and provide electrical COP>1 output with hho produced at the gas exhaust as a waste product 8)
http://hydraulicspneumatics.com/other-technologies/chapter-16-accumulators
Weight loaded: All gas-charged accumulators lose pressure as fluid discharges. This is because the nitrogen gas was compressed by incoming fluid from the pump and the gas must expand to push fluid out. The weight-loaded accumulator in Figure 16-1 does not lose pressure until the ram bottoms out. Thus 100% of the fluid is useful at full system pressure. The major drawback to weight-loaded accumulators is their physical size. They take up a lot of space and are very heavy if much volume is required. They work well in central hydraulic systems because there usually is room for them in the power unit area. However, central hydraulic systems are falling out of favor, so only a few facilities use weight-loaded accumulators. (Rolling mills are one application where space to place large items is not a problem.) Note that there is often a long dwell time to fill these monsters.
http://www.ehp-eg.com/hydraulic-training/hydraulic-accumulators/
The weight loaded accumulator is the only hydraulic accumulator,where the oil pressure remains constant regardless of amount filled, however a large volume of space is required for the weight.
If the Weight (Force) of chamber 'b' is a liquid, Mass can be moved easily by the Force of Gravity from a higher potential to a lower potential.
The piston can be lightweight plastic and being hollow contains a chamber that liquid water can be displaced from.
The hollow piston at the bottom of the stroke can be reset by a Force provided by the Specific Gravity Field differential.
http://www.tobul.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=13&Itemid=27
Gravity accumulator
http://hydraulicstraining.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/types-of-accumulator.html
The Weight-Loaded or Gravity accumulator, shown in Fig. 4–8, consists of a long, finely ground and polished vertical steel cylinder that is fitted with a long, close fitting, smooth finished piston. A sealing device of some type is fitted into the cylinder wall to prevent fluid from leaking past the piston. Weights are mounted or placed on the piston to maintain a constant fluid pressure with in the cylinder and the remainder of the system. The amount of weight depends on the system pressure. The piston is prevented from over traveling by limit switches that turn the pump off when the level is too high and turn the pump on when the level becomes low.
The fluid capacity of most weight – loaded accumulators does not exceed 250 cubic inches (slightly over one gallon). Weight – loaded accumulators are used infrequently because they are large, heavy, costly, and sluggish. Their response to changes in fluid demand is slow especially during high input surges because of the large mass of the weights and the frictional drag of the pressure seals.
hhop gen 3 by comparison has a lightweight neutrally buoyant hollow piston.
Understanding Hydrostatic Pressure and Pascal's Law
http://hydraulicstraining.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/understanding-hydrostatic-pressure-and.html
Fig. 1-4. shows a number of differently shaped, connected, open containers. Because liquid seek their own level, the liquid level as shown is at the same height in each container. This occurs because pressure is developed, with in a liquid, by the weight of the liquid above. If the liquid level in any one container were to be higher than that in any of the other containers, the higher pressure at the bottom of this container would cause some liquid to flow into the container having the lower liquid level. Also, the pressure of the liquid at any level (such as line A) is the same in each containers. Pressure increases because of the weight of the fluid. The farther down from the surface, the more pressure is created. This illustrates that the volume of liquid contained in a vessel has nothing to do with the pressure at the bottom of the vessel.
Pascal's Law.
The previous paragraph has just shown what happens to fluid in open containers. When pressure is exerted on a confined liquid, the pressure is transmitted equally in all directions through the liquid, as shown in Fig. 1-5. If the hammer strikes the solid block of wood, the force is only transmitted in a straight line. But if the hammer strikes a fluid, force is transmitted in all directions. Similarly, the pressure exerted on the liquid in Fig. 1-6. is equally distributed by the liquid throughout the system. Note how the hydraulic pressure in the tubing and containers acts with equal force in all directions.
hhop gen 3 chamber 'a' always has hydrostatic pressure as its working principle, chamber 'b' has only a weight force vector until it becomes chamber 'a' after hollow piston buoyancy reset.
MICRO-HYDRO INSTALLATION SIZING (PELTON AND TURGO WHEEL TURBINES)
http://www.pumpfundamentals.com/micro-hydro.htm
A very useful page to learn about micro hydro technology courtesy of the pumpfundamentals.com website :)
You will have to adjust your thinking to adapt to hhop gen 3 technology, much larger heads will be available than from a typical stream (the weight loaded accumulator can deliver very high pressures). High pressure (high velocity) with low flow extends turbine run time at the expense of power produced, the benefit is that approximately the same amount of energy will be produced overall from the power stroke but the longer run time / lower power configuration will allow you to easier match the refill / reset time of the second hhop gen 3, running on opposing cycle. Water erosion of the spoons will increase with a faster velocity jet, but higher flow lower pressure demands more SGP modules to meet system requirements..
Keep the turbine running 24/7 is the goal, add hhop gen 3's to meet flow requirements :)
http://firefightermath.org/
Firefighter Math: Self-Paced Math Course
This self-paced math course refreshers firefighters' knowledge of basic math concepts and tools necessary for making math calculations in the field. Topics include calculating tank volumes and flow rates, determining pump pressure and friction loss, understanding maps and location coordinates, and estimating slope. Additionally, the course presents information on calculating flame length, flame height, midflame windspeed, and other variables related to wildland firefighting efforts.
Squirt Water
3.1 Volume or Capacity
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27&Itemid=126
Volume is used to indicate the capacity of a tank or container. It is used by firefighters to answer questions like "How much water is left in the tank?" and "At 15 gallons per minute (gpm), how many more minutes before the tank is empty?"
3.2 Volume of Water in Hose
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29&Itemid=43
Volume of a Hose
The volume of a hose allows an estimate of how much water can be delivered to the fire and is important in firefighting. The hose diameter is usually given in inches, with length in feet. The volume of a hose can be computed using the equation for volume of a cylinder in Section 3.1.
3.3 Friction Loss in Fire Hose
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=30&Itemid=44
Friction Loss
Friction loss is the resulting resistance as water (fluid) moves along the inside wall of either a hose, pipe, or hose fittings.
Points to remember about friction loss:
Friction loss increases as flow (gpm) increases.
Total friction loss varies with length -- the greater the length, the higher the friction loss.
Friction losses on reeled hose average about 21 percent more than for straight hose lays.
Friction loss is nearly independent of pressure.
Friction loss varies with type, lining, weave, quality, and age of the hose.
Friction loss increases 4 times for each doubling of water flow. Reducing the diameter of a hose by 1/2 will increase the friction loss by a factor of 32 for the same flow.
To account for friction loss, the pressure at which the pump is working must be increased. The pump pressure must also be or decreased to compensate for the head loss or gain, to produce the desired nozzle pressure.
3.4 Calculating Engine Pump Pressures
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=31&Itemid=45
Pump Pressure
To achieve a desired nozzle pressure (DNP), a few factors must be considered. First, you must note the head loss (HL) or head gain (HG). Water head is the height of the water column (lift) due to imposing pressure. The head pressure is positive (gain) if the hose lay is downhill because the force of gravity is helping push the water down, consequently increasing the pressure. The head pressure is negative (loss) if the hose lay is uphill, since the force of gravity is pulling the water down, when it needs to be pumped up. Table 3.1 indicates that 1 foot of water head or lift produces 0.5 pounds per square inch of pressure. On that same note, 1 pound per square inch can produce 2 feet of water head). For every foot uphill or downhill, there is a change of 0.5 pounds per square inch of pressure. Note that this measurement represents the height of the hose (elevation) and not the length of the hose.
3.5 Drafting Guidelines
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32&Itemid=46
Drafting Guidelines
It is important to know the difference in elevation between the pump and the water source when drafting water from a pond or stream. When drafting water, the air at atmospheric pressure is removed from the hose line, creating a vacuum (negative pressure) within the pump chamber. The atmospheric pressure (weight of air) on the water's surface forces the water up through the suction hose to the pump.
The maximum height to which an engine or pump can lift water is determined by the atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the atmosphere exerts an average pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). Atmospheric pressure will vary due to changes in the weather. However, these changes tend to moderate themselves so that the average pressure will tend to go back toward 14.7 pounds per square inch. That is why it is safe to use this value of 14.7 pounds per square inch as a constant for calculations.
3.6 Flow Rates
http://firefightermath.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33&Itemid=47
Flow Rates
Flow rates describe the speed at which water is flowing. They are described in gallons per minute (gpm). The following test is a simple way to observe a flow rate.
Use a large drum with a marked level to indicate a pre-measured 50-gallon volume. Begin filling the drum with a hose and at the instant that the water begins to fill the tank, start timing how long it takes with a precise stop watch (preferably to 1/100 of a minute). When the water level reaches the marked line, take the hose away, and stop timing. To calculate the flow rate of the water through the hose, divide the total volume by the total time it took to reach that volume. Suppose it took 3.55 minutes.
50 gallons per 3.55 minutes (50/3.55)
50 ÷ 3.55 = 14.08
Flow rate = 14.08 gpm
If the stop watch has only seconds and minutes, the seconds can be converted into fractions (parts) of minutes. There are 60 seconds in 1 minute.
How much electricity can a micro hydro system produce?
http://info.cat.org.uk/questions/hydro/how-much-electricity-can-micro-hydro-system-produce
A good hydro site depends on the 'head' of water (the vertical drop) and the flow rate. To estimate the energy in a water source, multiply the flow (in litres per second) by the head (in metres) by 10 (acceleration due to gravity). Halve the result, to account for losses and inefficiencies, to get an idea of potential power generation (in watts).
Flow x Head x 10 x 0.5 = Potential power generation in Watts
As this equation makes clear, a greater head will provide more power. Also, as a high head turbine will spin very quickly, there may be no need for complex gearboxes or belts.
Once you've worked out the capacity of the turbine in kW, you'll then need estimates of how often you can run the turbine (e.g. hours per day or per year) to estimate the energy output over time.
For example, a 5kW turbine running continuously for 24 hours will produce: 5kW x 24 hours = 120 kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Most micro-hydro schemes are 'run-of-river' - they don't have a reservoir and only take water from the stream when it is available. You usually need a drop of over 10 metres for a scheme to be viable. High head 'Pelton' turbines are comparatively cheap, easy to install and work well in fluctuating flow. Crossflow turbines are more suitable for lower heads. Other turbines are available; their suitability depends on a combination of the available head and flow of water.
How much power could I generate?
http://www.renewablesfirst.co.uk/hydro-learning-centre/how-much-power-could-i-generate/
If you mean power, read on. If you mean energy (which is what you sell) read here. Power is the rate of producing energy. Power is measured in Watts (W) or kiloWatts (kW). Energy is what is used to do work and is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh) or megawatt-hours (MWh).
In simple terms, the maximum power output is entirely dependent on how much head and flow is available at the site, so a tiny micro-hydro system might produce just 2 kW, whereas a large utility-scale hydro system could easily produce hundreds of Megawatts (MW). To put this in context, a 2 kW hydropower system could satisfy the annual electrical energy needs of two 'average' UK homes, whereas a utility-scale 200 MW system could supply 200,000 average UK homes.
If you don't mind equations the easiest way to explain how much hydropower you could generate is to look at the equation for calculating hydro power:
P = m x g x Hnet x System efficiency
Where?
P = Power, measured in Watts (W).
m = Mass flow rate in kg/s (numerically the same as the flow rate in litres/second because 1 litre of water weighs 1 kg).
g = the gravitational constant, which is 9.81 m/s2.
Hnet = the net head. This is the gross head physically measured at the site, less any head losses. To keep things simple head losses can be assumed to be 10%, so Hnet is the gross head x 90%.
System efficiency = the product of all of the component efficiencies, which are normally the turbine, drive system and generator. For a 'typical' small hydro system the turbine efficiency would be 85%, drive efficiency 95% and generator efficiency 93%, so the overall system efficiency would be 0.85 x 0.95 x 0.93 = 0.751 or 75.1%.
Therefore, if you had a relatively low gross head of 2.5 metres, and a turbine that could take a maximum flow rate of 3 m3/s, the maximum power output of the system would be:
First convert the gross head into the net head by multiplying it by 0.9, so Hnet = 2.5 x 0.9 = 2.25 metres.
Then convert the flow rate in m3/s into litres/second by multiplying it by 1000, so 3 m3/s = 3,000 litres/second. Remember that 1 litre of water weighs 1 kg, so 'm' is the same numerically as the flow rate in litres/second, in this case 3,000 kg/s.
Now you are ready to calculate the power:
Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x System efficiency
= 3,000 x 9.81 x 2.25 x 0.751
= 49,729 Watts or 49.7 kW
Now, do the same for a high-head hydropower site where the gross head is 50 metres and maximum flow rate through the turbine 150 litres / second.
In this case Hnet = 50 x 0.9 = 45 metres and the flow rate in litres/second is 150, hence:
Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x System efficiency
= 150 x 9.81 x 45 x 0.751
= 49,729 Watts or 49.7 kW
What is interesting here is that for two entirely different sites, one with a net head of 2.25 metres and the other 45 metres, can generate exactly the same amount of power because the low-head site has much more flow (3,000 litres / second) compared to the high-head site with just 150 litres/second.
This clearly shows how the two main variables when calculating power output from a hydropower system are the head and the flow, and the power output is proportional to the head multiplied by the flow.
Of course the two systems in the example above would be physically very different. The low head site would need a physically large Archimedean Screw or Kaplan turbine inside a turbine house the size of a large garage because it would have to be physically large to discharge such a large volume of water with a relatively low pressure (head) across it. The high-head site would only need a small Pelton or Turgo turbine the size of a fridge because it only has to discharge 5% of the flow rate of the low-head system and under a much higher pressure.
It is interesting that in the 'real world' the heads and flows in the example above aren't too far from reality, because high-head sites tend to be at the heads of rivers in upland areas, so the ground slopes steeply enabling high heads to be created, but the rainfall catchment of the watercourse is relatively small, so the flow rate is small. That same upland stream 20 km downstream would have merged with countless small tributaries and formed into a much larger river with a higher flow rate, but the surrounding area would now be lowland agricultural land with only a modest gradient. It would only be possible to have a low head across a weir to avoid risking flooding the surrounding land, but the flow rate in the lowland river would be much larger to compensate.
The UK has a range of all types of high, medium and low head hydropower sites. England has more low-head sites, Scotland more high-head, and Wales a mixture of everything but still with significant medium and high-head opportunities.
Microhydro Myths & Misconceptions
http://www.homepower.com/articles/microhydro-power/design-installation/microhydro-myths-misconceptions
Making electricity from falling water can seem like magic, and that's led to lots of misconceptions. Here, we'll separate fact from fiction when it comes to what microhydro systems can and cannot do.
Residential-scale microhydro-electric systems have the reputation of being the holy grail of home renewable-energy (RE) systems. While they lack some of the hype, magic, and bling of solar-electric (photovoltaic) systems, microhydro systems are a simple technology that most people can understand...at least in general. In this article, we'll look at some common microhydro system misconceptions, most of which come from folks looking for shortcuts to the reward of cheap electricity.
Modern microhydro equipment comes from proven technology based on designs that have changed very little over the decades. Pelton and turgo wheels, the typical spinning water-wheel component, were invented in 1870 and 1919, respectively. The point is, this technology has proven its reliability and functionality with more than a century of performance.
The cost of these systems, and thus the cost of the resulting electricity, also has the reputation for being very reasonable when compared to other renewable or home-generated sources. While PV module prices have recently dropped, they are still a high-tech and expensive commodity. Microhydro systems can arguably be considered low-tech, with civil works and pipelines often being the majority of the system cost. Of course, the actual cost varies significantly from site to site, and from system to system.
Another element that keeps microhydro-generated electricity low in cost, and thus high in desirability, is the system's continuous duty cycle. While PV systems only produce electricity when the sun is shining (and wind-electric systems when the wind is blowing), microhydro systems aren't affected by nightfall or weather blocking the sun. Even a small hydro resource can provide electricity 24 hours a day, and often 365 days a year (if the water source is year-round). The bottom line for any renewable energy system is the amount of energy it can produce annually. A low power source working all of the time can often produce a lot more energy than a more powerful source that only works intermittently.
So, why doesn't everyone have a microhydro system? Herein lies the challenge. A viable hydro resource is dependent on the availability of falling water at, or near, the site of the electrical loads. It is the weight or pressure of that flowing water that spins the turbine to produce electrical energy. Not everyone has access to a stream or spring of adequate volume on their property, nor does everyone have the topography to create the vertical drop needed to pressurize that water with gravity. See the "Microhydro Rules" sidebar for a formula about how water flow and vertical pressure (head) combine to determine the power available from a potential hydro site. That site-assessment formula will help debunk some of the myths that follow.
Many microhydro misconceptions are a combination of misunderstanding some of the basic properties of physics, and an overzealous optimism about the potential of RE resources. Here, we hope to correct the misconceptions about physics, while at the same time further encouraging educated optimism. Once you've had a little reality check here, we suggest you read some of Home Power's other articles on the basics of hydro site assessment and microhydro systems (see Access at the end of this article). Perhaps you really do have untapped hydro potential waiting for you.
Myth 1: Closed-Loop / Pumped Storage
By far, the most common flawed design that we hear about at Home Power is the closed-loop system—that is, some scheme to pump water for the hydro turbine, and then have the turbine produce the electrical power for the pump...ad infinitum. Some of these schemes are simple "hydro-in-a-bucket" designs where the pump is expected to pressurize the water for the hydro turbine. Others are more involved, planning to pump water uphill to a pond or tank, and then let gravity do the job of running the turbine. All the while, the designer is expecting to get extra usable electric power from the turbine's output—beyond what the pump is using. Whether large or small, all of these designs suffer from the same flaw in thinking.
The first law of thermodynamics says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. All of the energy systems (renewable and otherwise) that we rely upon convert existing energy into a form that we can use to do the work we want to do. In a hydro-electric system, the energy of moving water is transferred to a rotating shaft, converted to changing magnetic fields, and then converted to moving electrons (electricity). But at no point is energy created. If we use that energy to create magnetic fields again, spinning a shaft and pumping water up to a tank on a hill, we still haven't created any energy. We've just changed its form again.
In a perfect universe, perhaps it could be argued that such a pump and turbine arrangement could run perpetually. But it wouldn't do us any good, because we want to use that electricity to do some work besides just running the pump. Using any electricity for other tasks would be robbing the pump of the power it needed to keep up with the turbine, and the loop's interdependence would break down. That, and the fact that there are always other forces robbing energy from the system, means that such a loop wouldn't run for long, and that no additional energy could be extracted from it.
Those additional energy-robbing forces, mostly friction, are the imperfections that cripple this closed-loop design. Every component of such a system has an operating efficiency of less than 100%. That means each conversion step in the process wastes some of the potential energy that the system started with. We know that energy is not being destroyed, but it is being allowed to escape the loop in the form of heat, vibration, and even noise. It is being converted into a form that we can't readily use, or even recover.
Let's look at some typical microhydro system efficiency numbers:
Penstock (pipeline) efficiency = 95%
Nozzle and runner efficiency = 80%
Permanent-magnet alternator efficiency = 90%
Wiring and control efficiency = 98%
0.95 × 0.80 × 0.90 × 0.98 = 0.67
By the time the water has moved through this example microhydro generator system, only 67% of its initial potential energy has been converted to electricity. In fact, this would be considered very good performance—typical systems are about 55% efficient.
Now let's consider the efficiencies of pumping that water back to the hydro intake for reuse:
Pipe efficiency = 95%
Pump (motor and impeller) efficiency = 65%
0.95 × 0.65 × 0.67 (from above) = 0.41
By the time the water had gone all the way through the system, only 41% of it would be returned to the top of the intake. After a second loop around, only 17% (0.41 × 0.41) of the water would be left.
If there isn't a water supply with useful head and flow to start with, nothing will happen—the pump won't run because it won't have electricity; the hydro turbine won't have electricity because the pump isn't running. Adding water (or electricity) to "prime" the loop will make the loop operate only as long as the priming continues.
This is where creative folks start asking questions about bigger water tanks; larger pipes with less friction loss; tanks on a tower for shorter pipe runs; more head, and less flow; less head and more flow; adding batteries (only 80% efficient themselves); or even just piping right from the pump to the turbine—anything to improve system efficiency. In fact, the simplest thing that could be done to get rid of inefficiencies would be to skip the water components altogether; just hook the shaft of a motor directly to the shaft of the alternator, and the alternators output wires directly to the motor (somehow, the fallacy in that thinking is easier for us to understand). But no matter the variables, the outcome will be the same—total efficiency will be less than 100% and no energy will be gained.
Moving energy around and changing its form, like from chemical to mechanical to electrical, is only a way to lose some of it. These efficiency losses are part of the price we pay to get energy into a format that we can use. We can lose more, or we can lose less, but adding complexity is inefficiency and will never result in a net gain.
Myth 2: Rooftop / Downspout Hydro
A second common microhydro-electric scheme that we are often asked about is the viability of putting turbines on a home's gutter downspouts to generate electricity from the rain. Some imaginative folks know enough about hydro to understand that the energy has to come from somewhere (in this case, from the forces of nature), and that the height of the roof can contribute head (pressure) to spin that turbine.
The mistake in this scenario is a simple and honest one of scale. While some hydro units have been designed that can function on low head, such as from the roofline of typical homes (and even lower), a hydro turbine's power output is a product of head times flow. And it is a lack of significant flow that is the defeating factor in the power equation when relying on rooftop rainwater collection. The watershed drainages for even small streams are usually measured in thousands of acres or square miles. Home roofs, even big ones, are measured in mere thousands of square feet.
Let's look at example calculations for a large house in a very rainy place—Seattle, Washington, gets about 40 inches of rain per year, with November being the rainiest month at an average of about 6 inches.
Let's assume that a tall two-story house would give us a 25-foot-high roof, and thus 25 feet of head. This 6,000-square-foot home has about 3,000 square feet of rainwater collection area (remember, it's two stories). That means that in November, this house would receive about 1,500 cubic feet of rain, or 11,220 gallons.
If that rainfall came as a constant drizzle all month long, flow from the roof would be only about 1/4 gallon per minute. Currently there is no turbine on the market to work with that flows that low, but using our microhydro power formula (see sidebar), we could theoretically get 468 watt-hours that month.
0.26 gpm × 25 feet ÷ 10 derate = 0.65 watts × 720 hrs./mo. = 468 Wh
So even if there was a nanohydro plant that could harvest that small flow, it would result in less than 1/2 kWh of electricity—per month!—and only 3 cents worth of electricity in Seattle. It's a tiny fraction of what even an energy-efficient, 6,000-square-foot home would use in a day, not to mention a whole month.
Would the available energy increase if we weren't dealing with a constant drizzle? What if, to increase flows to a usable rate, and hopefully increase viable energy production, we could hope that all that rain came in a great deluge of 1 inch per hour (a 100-year storm, in Seattle) over six hours! At that unlikely amount of rain—practically all at once—flow from our example roof would be about 31 gpm. That is a more viable flow rate for hydro turbines on the market and gives us a projected power production of 77.5 watts, but only for those six hours. The total of 465 Wh per month is about the same energy as the drizzly example above (the minor difference is from rounding significant digits).
This is when inventive thinkers will begin planning for taller homes, or additional rain-collecting roof areas, and tanks to hold the water for release all at once to increase flow. But even that 11,220 gallons of water that falls on our 3,000-square-foot roof that month would weigh almost 47 tons if stored. Imagine a structure at roof level capable of supporting that kind of load just to generate a minuscule amount of energy. And remember, these discouraging energy production numbers are for the rainiest month, in one of America's rainiest cities. Other months, other places, and smaller houses can only deliver worse performance.
In this case, it would be better to just spend the money on a PV system. To put things into perspective, even in Seattle, which gets only an average of 1.7 peak sun-hours per day in November, an inexpensive (less than $100) 15-watt PV module would make close to the same amount of energy as the proposed rooftop hydro system.
Myth 3: Hydro from Municipal Water Supply
So, a thinking person might begin wondering where they could get good water pressure and adequate flow necessary to run a microhydro turbine. It's the kind of question an inspired hydro wannabe might ponder, say, while standing in the shower. And that's when another common hydro scheme is hatched.
Typical municipal water pressure is between 40 and 80 psi, the equivalent of 92 to 185 feet of head. That is definitely enough for a hydro system. And if available flow is about 10 gallons per minute, say at the bathtub faucet, then surely there must be some real power available whenever we turn on our faucets.
However, if we use our example power formula with a common pressure of 60 psi (138 feet), we get a projected power output of about 138 watts.
138 ft. × 10 gpm ÷ 10 derate = 138 W × 24 hrs. = 3,312 Wh per day
That 3.3 kWh per day is something—but not a lot. An average American household uses about 30 kWh per day, so would need nine of these units.
For the sake of argument, let's assume a very energy-efficient home that could run on 3.3 kWh per day. Why not then use such a hydro system? Or, why not offset a portion of a home's loads with hydro? Every little bit helps, right?
The 3.3 kWh figure is based on using 10 gallons per minute—24 hours per day. That's 14,400 gallons per day. At an average cost in the United States of $1.50 per 1,000 gallons, that's $21.60 per day in water costs just to generate 36 cents worth of electricity (based on the U.S. average of $0.11 per kWh).
Then there is the ecological and moral impact—remember, this is water that has been treated and purified for human consumption, and uses pumps to maintain that pressure—processes likely paid for in part with taxpayer money. Costs aside, what are the implications of pouring good clean water down the drain just to make a little electricity?
Finally, just to add a final coup de grâce to this hydro scheme, remember that most of what we do with our domestic water requires water pressure, as well as flow, to get the job done. Taking the energy out of water to make electricity robs that water of its pressure—water merely falls dead (depleted of energy) out the bottom of a hydro turbine. And pressure at other faucets may be anemic at best—imagine trying to rinse shampoo out of your hair while a hydro system is running full-bore in the same home. Not so effective, or enjoyable.
Myth 4: Reducing Pipe Size to Increase Pressure / Power
There is no substitution for head and flow in an effective microhydro system. When head is inadequate, we begin to think of creative ways to increase pressure. The simple example of watering the garden with a hose comes to mind. Doesn't putting your thumb partially over the hose opening increase the pressure, shooting water farther across the lawn? What if you use a spray nozzle instead of your thumb? Didn't you just increase the power of that system by reducing the size of the nozzle? And therefore, couldn't you increase head (and thus power) in a hydro system by starting off with a large pipe diameter and then reducing the pipe size on the way to the turbine?
Sorry, but no. When a pro measures head in a hydro system, they note two different types. Static head is the pressure at the turbine with the bottom valve closed, and thus no water moving. It is the pressure, from the weight of all the water in the pipe above the turbine. This pressure, measured in pounds per square inch (psi), is in direct proportion to the height of that column of water. For every 2.3 feet of vertical head, you'll measure 1 psi. Because it is directly proportional, there's no need to put in pipes and fill them with water to measure it; just measuring the vertical drop between water source and turbine site will give you an accurate static head.
But static head is just a maximum starting point. Dynamic head is the adjusted theoretical pressure in the system when inefficiencies like friction loss of pipes, joints, elbows, and valves are considered. These things hinder the flow of water through the system, and therefore some of its potential energy. Dynamic head is the result of static head minus these power losses, and provides a more accurate estimate of turbine performance.
Adding a smaller pipe section or nozzle is basically adding another restriction in the pipe that creates resistance to the flow of water. It effectively lowers the dynamic head of the system and thus also lowers the total power available in the system.
"Wait," you say, "what about the hose spraying farther across the yard?" Or maybe you are savvy enough about hydro systems to know that impulse turbines actually use nozzles to shoot a stream of water at the spinning runner. Well, you are right, but neither pressure nor power are being increased by the nozzle. Instead, the existing energy is being concentrated into a smaller point and at higher velocity—which is a more usable form for the turbine—but, in the process, some of that energy is lost to friction.
The purpose of a nozzle is to increase the kinetic energy of the flowing water by increasing its velocity. But this is at the expense of its potential energy in the form of pressure. In fact, on the outlet side of a nozzle, there is no pressure in the water; it is carrying all of its energy in the form of fast-moving kinetic energy. And it is the force of this kinetic energy against the turbine's runner that makes it spin. But no increase in energy was created. In fact, that water moving faster through a nozzle has more friction loss, reducing our dynamic head and total available power in the system—less power, but in a more useful form.
There is never any more power available than the theoretical maximum based on the initial static head (at a given flow). Every component and change in the form of energy in the system acts as an inefficiency, reducing actual available power. Some of those losses are necessary ones (getting the water down the hill, shooting it at the runner, etc.). Good design can reduce losses, but they can never be eliminated completely. And they definitely can't be changed to net gains.
Myth 5: In-Flow / No-Head Systems
It's starting to sound like only those folks with a stream or river on their property have a viable hydro system. But if you do have a good-flowing stream, you're all set for hydro power, right? Well, it's even more complicated than that.
We know that the power available to typical hydro turbines is a product of the head (pressure) and flow rate. So we also know that as head decreases, flow must increase to make the same amount of power. But what about folks with a nice river flowing along relatively flat ground? There must be some energy available in that strongly moving mass of water, even though it isn't falling from a height, right? Well, yes and no.
Besides just turbine size, there are different turbine technologies designed to take advantage of the ratios of head-to-flow at a given hydro site. But as head decreases, the energy gets harder and harder to capture. Reaction turbines, designed for low heads (as low as 2 or 3 feet) spin inside a column of falling water, but need high flow for significant power.
But what about situations with basically no head at all? What about that big river flowing through a flat plain? Well, try putting zero head into our hydro power equation and you will find that, no matter how much flow there is, the power output will be zero, too. To be fair, there must be some head for the water in a stream to be moving at all, and thus there must be some power there to capture. But even though the movement of that flat-water stream looks enticing, there isn't much potential to start with, compared to the same water dropping down a hillside. And then there's the challenge in capturing it.
To make up for lack of head, flow would need to be substantial. Either the river must be flowing very fast, and/or a very large area of river must be captured. Both create challenges in the integrity of the mounting structure and turbine runner itself, plus the added danger from river debris.
A fast-moving river is often only moving fast in the center. Near the banks, shallows, or along the bottom, friction reduces the flow. The speed of the river in the center can't necessarily be extrapolated to the whole cross-sectional area. Instead, there are specific formulas to account for the reduced flow along the bottom and shallow sides of a stream.
And even a quickly flowing river is moving a lot more slowly than the runner in a jet-driven impulse turbine in a system with higher head. A slowly spinning runner needs to be geared to create the rotational speeds necessary to generate electricity with an alternator. The gearing adds further complexity and friction loss to the system—more inefficiency.
We're not saying that it can't be done. But we are saying that it's unlikely that you can buy anything off the shelf that will do an adequate job for you. There have been, and will continue to be, many inventions intended to capture energy from the flow in a river. These "in-flow" or "current turbine" designs come and go, and come again, but we rarely see anything that performs to a level that warrants a reliable consumer product. There are a couple of in-flow products on the market (Ampair and Jackrabbit) that were originally designed for towing behind sailboats or barges. Some have adapted these to use in streams, but the small swept area of their propeller requires high-velocity flow to make much usable power.
If you are a tinkerer, and enjoy the creative challenge of hydro design, you may be able to fashion an in-flow turbine to make some power (though it may never pay back financially). But if you are being tempted by commercially available in-flow turbine designs, caveat emptor. Do your homework by talking to other reputable hydro installers about your resource and options. Be realistic about your capturable stream area and flow rate. And ask for real-number data, and references, from the turbine manufacturer.
Head & Flow: Check Your Reality
While microhydro power is a reliable and proven technology, often at a reasonable cost, it's completely dependent on the resources available on a site-by-site basis. Either your site has reasonable hydro potential, or it doesn't. And it all depends on the quantities of head and flow. There's no cheating the laws of physics. There is no way to create energy. There is no free lunch.
That doesn't mean that there aren't ways to optimize your hydro potential to get the most energy out of your resource. That's where professional designers and reputable manufacturers come in. They have the knowledge to make decisions on siting and equipment that will maximize the energy made from the head and flow that is available. Intake type, pipe sizing and routing, the size and number of nozzles, runner type, alternator size and type, controller type, and system voltage are all variables that, when combined properly, will make or break your system performance and financial viability.
So give up on the free energy designs. Instead, read some of Home Power's real-world articles on hydro system design, do a preliminary measurement of your stream's actual head and flow, and call a reputable microhydro professional. That's the best scheme for maximizing your hydro system's performance.
Access
Benjamin Root is no expert on microhydro power, but with 15 years on staff with Home Power, he has seen a frustrating repetition of misconceptions about renewable energy's potential...and hydro seems to take the brunt. Before you try to debunk Ben's debunking, he suggests you do the same thorough research that he did to write this article.
Myth 1: Closed-Loop / Pumped StorageQuote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.24, 22:21:33
By far, the most common flawed design that we hear about at Home Power is the closed-loop system—that is, some scheme to pump water for the hydro turbine, and then have the turbine produce the electrical power for the pump...ad infinitum. Some of these schemes are simple "hydro-in-a-bucket" designs where the pump is expected to pressurize the water for the hydro turbine. Others are more involved, planning to pump water uphill to a pond or tank, and then let gravity do the job of running the turbine. All the while, the designer is expecting to get extra usable electric power from the turbine's output—beyond what the pump is using. Whether large or small, all of these designs suffer from the same flaw in thinking.
hhop gen 3 uses a weight loaded ram (chamber b + piston) to energise liquid and therefore produce usable pressure. A 2% loss of liquid from an energised accumulator outlet nozzle will result in a total loss of fluid pressure. The ram must move to maintain fluid pressure and the energy to drive that ram is provided by gravity. The reason this works is because chamber b mass has been defined as a weight and therefore has a force vector only (downwards pressurising the piston onto the liquid and therefore energising it). If hydrostatic pressure equalisation of the liquid in chamber a and b was allowed to occur on the piston drive stroke (no seals), you lose pressure. The liquid in chamber b can still communicate hydraulically across the piston surface area to chamber a, but b is defined as a weight force only and it is unbalanced in the system at a higher gravitational potential. Chamber a is defined as a hydraulic scalar within the specific gravity field and therefore experiences hydrostatic pressure equalisation.Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.24, 22:21:33
The first law of thermodynamics says that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. All of the energy systems (renewable and otherwise) that we rely upon convert existing energy into a form that we can use to do the work we want to do. In a hydro-electric system, the energy of moving water is transferred to a rotating shaft, converted to changing magnetic fields, and then converted to moving electrons (electricity). But at no point is energy created. If we use that energy to create magnetic fields again, spinning a shaft and pumping water up to a tank on a hill, we still haven't created any energy. We've just changed its form again.
I accept these losses as entirely accurate for the systems discussed here, however hhop is a new type of pump that operates on gas pressure volume differential. The incoming liquid weight on the next pumping drive cycle (b) pumps the previous drive cycles liquid (a) back to the reservoir via the turbine and alternator to produce electricity. I am not using the electricity from the alternator to pump the water used to drive the turbine back up the hill to its original gravitational potential energy position (foot head psi). The hollow piston reset is the only process that requires a pump and a low energy high volume differential gas displacement pump can change the density of the piston and introduce a buoyancy force to the system that causes the piston to ascend. Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.24, 22:21:33
In a perfect universe, perhaps it could be argued that such a pump and turbine arrangement could run perpetually. But it wouldn't do us any good, because we want to use that electricity to do some work besides just running the pump. Using any electricity for other tasks would be robbing the pump of the power it needed to keep up with the turbine, and the loop's interdependence would break down. That, and the fact that there are always other forces robbing energy from the system, means that such a loop wouldn't run for long, and that no additional energy could be extracted from it.
hhop gen 3 gravity runs the pump, the electricity is used to reset the piston only. The ratio of electricity available at the turbine alternator output to the electricity required to displace the required volume of liquid from inside the hollow piston defines the coefficient of performanceQuote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.24, 22:21:33
Those additional energy-robbing forces, mostly friction, are the imperfections that cripple this closed-loop design. Every component of such a system has an operating efficiency of less than 100%. That means each conversion step in the process wastes some of the potential energy that the system started with. We know that energy is not being destroyed, but it is being allowed to escape the loop in the form of heat, vibration, and even noise. It is being converted into a form that we can't readily use, or even recover.
hhop gen 3 works just the same, losses at every energy conversion stage. There are two cycles that the liquid will go through, b as a weight force vector and a as an unbalanced hydrodynamic flow seeking pressure equalisation (hence the jet of water out the bleed nipple to drive your turbine). Gravity is the input on each half cycle so the total system energy available is the total gravitational potential times two (b + b) minus losses times two, because the water at a has to get back to the reservoir at the turbine exhaust (starting gravitational potential before flowing in to b). Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.24, 22:21:33
Let's look at some typical microhydro system efficiency numbers:
Penstock (pipeline) efficiency = 95%
Nozzle and runner efficiency = 80%
Permanent-magnet alternator efficiency = 90%
Wiring and control efficiency = 98%
0.95 × 0.80 × 0.90 × 0.98 = 0.67
By the time the water has moved through this example microhydro generator system, only 67% of its initial potential energy has been converted to electricity. In fact, this would be considered very good performance—typical systems are about 55% efficient.
Now let's consider the efficiencies of pumping that water back to the hydro intake for reuse:
Pipe efficiency = 95%
Pump (motor and impeller) efficiency = 65%
0.95 × 0.65 × 0.67 (from above) = 0.41
By the time the water had gone all the way through the system, only 41% of it would be returned to the top of the intake. After a second loop around, only 17% (0.41 × 0.41) of the water would be left.
If there isn't a water supply with useful head and flow to start with, nothing will happen—the pump won't run because it won't have electricity; the hydro turbine won't have electricity because the pump isn't running. Adding water (or electricity) to "prime" the loop will make the loop operate only as long as the priming continues.
This is where creative folks start asking questions about bigger water tanks; larger pipes with less friction loss; tanks on a tower for shorter pipe runs; more head, and less flow; less head and more flow; adding batteries (only 80% efficient themselves); or even just piping right from the pump to the turbine—anything to improve system efficiency. In fact, the simplest thing that could be done to get rid of inefficiencies would be to skip the water components altogether; just hook the shaft of a motor directly to the shaft of the alternator, and the alternators output wires directly to the motor (somehow, the fallacy in that thinking is easier for us to understand). But no matter the variables, the outcome will be the same—total efficiency will be less than 100% and no energy will be gained.
Moving energy around and changing its form, like from chemical to mechanical to electrical, is only a way to lose some of it. These efficiency losses are part of the price we pay to get energy into a format that we can use. We can lose more, or we can lose less, but adding complexity is inefficiency and will never result in a net gain.
Electrical energy required for system reset from the alternator output is directly related to gas volume in the displacement chamber inside the hollow piston. Change the run time on the alternator and you produce more electricity, if the piston diameter and volume remains constant you can increase liquid volume and therefore extend run time without effecting the ratio.
What is Friction and What Does it Have to do with Rubber?
Written by Dale T. McGrosky
http://www.satoriseal.com/technical/technical_articles/what_is_friction.htm
How many times have you heard "What is an O-ring?" Without knowing it, O-rings are used in so many things in our daily lives and we just aren't aware of it. Friction is the same way. We rely on friction in our daily lives. For instance, friction is what keeps our tires glued to the road so your vehicle doesn't slide out of control. Tires without friction would be like driving on ice. I know, many of you are thinking "What about walking on ice?" It's the same thing, we rely on the friction between the soles of our shoes and the ground to keep us from slipping. By now I am sure the wheels are turning in your head and you're probably thinking of many other examples where the friction, or lack of friction, between two surfaces benefits us.
Friction is a force that opposes the movement of one object against another. There are three type of frictional forces, static, limiting and kinetic.
Static friction is the friction acting on and object when there is a force applied to the object while it is not moving. Lets explain this. Take an O-ring, or something that is not very slippery, and put it on a desktop. With your hand start to push on the o-ring in the direction you want it to slide without actually making it move. Now you are applying a force on the O-ring and it is not moving. Why? Because static friction is opposing the force you are applying to the O-ring. The frictional force is stronger than the force you are applying to the O-ring preventing it from sliding.
Limiting friction is the friction acting on an object just before it begins to move. This is often called breakout friction or its breakout point. Limiting friction is usually the highest friction, meaning, it usually takes more force to get something moving than to keep it moving. Lets explain this further. Ok, you should still have your hand on your O-ring and applying a force to it without making the o-ring move. Now, gradually increase the amount of force you are applying to the O-ring until it starts to move. Did you notice that once the o-ring started to move it required less force to keep it moving than it did to start it moving. Try it again but pay attention to the amount of force you are applying to the o-ring until it starts to move. The point just before the O-ring starts to move is called the limiting friction. It is were the frictional force is at its highest, usually.
Kinetic friction is the friction acting on an object while it is moving. To explain this one lets do a little comparison. You felt the frictional forces on the o-ring as you applied force to it while it was moving--right? Now, do the same thing to a piece of ice that you did with the O-ring. You will find that it takes less force to slide the ice across the desktop than the o-ring. This is because there is less kinetic friction between the ice and the desktop than the O-ring against the desktop. There is less frictional force opposing the ice moving on the desktop than the O-ring. Parents, this sounds like a pretty cool science fair project huh?
Friction is originated from electromagnetic forces and exchange forces between atoms and molecules. Electromagnetic forces and exchange forces (strong force) are two of the 4 fundamental forces, strong force, electromagnetic, weak force and gravity. Exchange force is any force that has to do with the exchange of particles. Technically all 4 forces can be classified as an exchange force.
Electromagnetic force is the force which holds the atoms together and keeps the electrons from flying off somewhere away from the atoms nucleus and also holds the atoms together to form molecules. You probably heard the phrase, "Like charges repel, opposite charges attract." Two positive or two negative particles will repel while a positive and a negative particle will attract. Atoms are made up of neutrons (neutrally charged), protons (positively charges) and Electrons (negatively charged). The nucleus contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons travel around the nucleus in orbits similar to the planets in our solar system revolve around the sun. Neither the planets or electrons fly away because they are held in place by exchange forces. Electrons by the electromagnetic force and planets by gravity or gravitational force. It is the electromagnetic force that also keeps atoms together in molecules and causes an attraction or repulsion between two atoms.
Strong force (exchange force) is a fundamental force that acts on the nucleus of and atom. It is the force that binds particles together to form the neutrons and protons in the atom. The strong force is the strongest force. It can cause two protons to hold together despite the fact they are both positively charges and want to repel due to the electromagnetic force. The attraction of the strong force is stronger than the repulsion of the electromagnetic force.
So what do these forces have to do with friction? Certain molecules are going to attract to each other increasing frictional forces and some molecules repel reducing frictional forces. Lets look at what some call the most slippery material on earth – polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or commonly referred to by its trade name Teflon®. PTFE is a long string of carbon atoms joined together with two fluorine atoms attached to each carbon atom. Fluorine, when attached to a molecule doesn't like any other molecule around it. It repels any other molecule even other molecules with fluorine atoms, hence its low coefficient of friction or slipperiness.
Coefficient of Friction
Lets say while you are sliding the O-ring across the desktop and you slide it through some grease left over from your french fries at lunch and suddenly the o-ring moves very easily with little force. You just modified the frictional coefficient or "Coefficient of Friction" with a lubricant. The same thing can be done to O-rings or rubber parts to reduce the coefficient of friction. 3 things can be done to reduce the coefficient of friction on rubber parts. You can coat the surface with a lubricant, add an internal lubricant to the compound, or modify the surface with fluorine, also called surface modification.
A lubricant can be applied to the surface of a rubber part to reduce the coefficient of friction. Some of the more common lubricants are silicone, molybdenum disulfide(MoS2), talc (baby powder), graphite, carnuba wax. These are temporary and do not stay on very long. They are primarily used to make installation easier. The surface can be coated with a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or more commonly called Teflon®). PTFE coating is a thin layer of PTFE applied to the surface and them baked on in an oven. This is a little more permanent but can wear off or be scratched of the rubber. PTFE coating is not only used to reduce the coefficient of friction but the coatings are available in several colors which makes for great part identification on assembly lines. Another method of surface coating rubber is called chlorination. The rubber is introduced to chlorine gas which causes micro cracks on the surface which holds an external lubricant. This method is more permanent than PTFE coating.
Another method of lubricating rubber is to add a lubricant to the rubber compound as it is being mixed. The internal lube will slowly leach to the surface over time. This is great for dynamic applications where the rubber seal is moving during its use. Common internal lubricants are carnuba wax, PTFE, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), graphite.
The newest method of reducing the coefficient of friction is "Surface Modification." In this method the hydrogen atoms that are bonded with carbon atoms on the surface of the rubber are replaced with fluorine atoms. Remember fluorine above in the PTFE? When fluorine is bonded to a molecule it doesn't like other molecules -- It repels them making the molecule slippery. Also, fluorine is the most electronegative element. Electronegativity is the atoms ability to attract and share electrons with other molecules. What this means is once the fluorine atom bonds with the carbon atoms in the rubber molecule it doesn't easily come off making this process superior. The surface modified rubber can be used in dynamic applications where the O-ring moves and needs to maintain a low coefficient of friction surface that won't wear off.
Satori Seal can provide O-rings and seals with low coefficient of friction properties by any of the above methods.
Low-friction seals lead to high machine efficiency
A novel hydraulic seal minimizes friction and leakage across a wide pressure range.
By Walter Igers
Thomas Papatheodorou
Parker Hannifin GmbH
http://hydraulicspneumatics.com/200/TechZone/Seals/Article/False/86292/TechZone-Seals
Cutting seal friction saves energy and helps eliminate undesirable stick-slip motion.
Operators of fluid-power systems increasingly demand friction-optimized piston and rod seals for hydraulic cylinders. Excessive friction not only wastes energy, it can also accelerate wear and lead to premature seal failure. But too little friction and a seal leaks. Getting the balance just right across varying pressures and operating conditions has been an ongoing challenge for seal manufacturers.
Parker Hannifin's Seal Group has developed a product that meets this goal. The company's new Ultrathan HL rod seal features a series of cascading, pressure-activated sealing lips that, according to Parker officials, reduce static and dynamic friction in hydraulic cylinders.
Compared with conventional U-rings, the HL single-acting rod seals reportedly reduce friction-related losses by 30 to 70%, depending on load, without compromising sealing capability. This increases hydraulic-system efficiency and can lead to significant energy savings.
Stepped pressure activation
Various parameters influence friction in hydraulic seals. The size of the contact area between the seal and respective sliding surface is one key factor. In essence, the larger the contact area, the higher the static and dynamic friction.
Also, hydraulic-system pressure dictates the amount of friction required to prevent fluid from leaking past the seal. For example, friction at lower system pressures, or in differential cylinders with small pressure differences, is significantly more critical than in cylinders operating at higher pressures. With conventional U-seals, a large portion of the dynamic sealing area typically contacts the piston-rod surface even at low system pressures, which increases friction. The HL takes a different approach.
The HL seal profile features three individual sealing lips that consecutively contact the mating surface as pressure rises. In low pressure or pressureless conditions only one lip contacts the rod. The resulting small contact area produces significantly less friction, compared with standard U-cups. And less friction means the seal generates less heat, permitting higher travel speeds. In addition, because only the primary sealing lip engages at low pressures, the HL minimizes breakaway friction typical after prolonged down time.
As system pressure rises, the seal's cross section deforms slightly and additional sealing lips are activated. Thus, sealing capabilities increase with pressure and the number of sealing edges in contact with the rod.
Multiple sealing lips also reduce the amount of oil on the rod surface that seeps past the seal as the cylinder strokes, further reducing leakage. Although dynamic friction slightly increases as more lips engage and the contact area enlarges, overall, it remains at a low level. In addition, the design virtually eliminates the risk of stick-slip at slow travel speeds.
Pressure-activated sealing
The HL seal geometry features three sealing lips that consecutively contact the rod surface as pressure increases.
The result is low friction and tight sealing at all pressures.
New materials
Performance of the new geometry also depends on the seal material, a newly developed polyurethane called P6030.The material is specifically designed for low-friction, fluid-power applications. It handles a wide range of temperatures and has good mechanical strength, high extrusion and wear resistance, and low compression set. It is compatible with mineral-oil and PAO-based hydraulic fluids, and materials for bio fluids (HEES and HETG) are available as well.
Endurance tests performed according to ISO 7986 gauged the long-term performance of HL seals made of P6030. Seals were installed in cylinders with 36-mm diameter, hard-chrome-plated rods and a 250-mm stroke. The seals were subject to pressures from 0 to 200 bar, temperatures of 65°C, and rod speeds of 0.15 m/sec for 500 km (1 million cycles) to determine friction and leakage behavior as well as deformation and wear.
Results showed no significant extrusion, no abrasion on the sealing edge and surface, no changes in sealing edge contours, low plastic deformation of the seal profile, and low preloading loss (less than 30%).
Wide application range
The HL rod seal can be used as both a single seal with a wiper and in a sealing system — as a secondary seal behind a primary or buffer seal. The seals are designed for maximum operating pressures of 250 bar (3675 psi) and operating temperatures between –35° and 110°C.
The HL Ultrathan rod seal is suitable for a wide range of hydraulic applications requiring minimal friction, such as lifting platforms, lift trucks, and loading gates. Test and automation cylinders, cylinders for ag equipment, and gas springs are other typical applications.
Walter Igers is Development Engineer and Thomas Papatheodorou is Manager of Technical Services at Parker Hannifin GmbH, Packing Div., Europe, Bietigheim-Bissingen, Germany. For more information, contact the Parker Hannifin Seal Group, Cleveland, or visit www.parker.com.
Friction-force tests
Parker engineers performed a series of tests to compare the behavior of the HL design with that of other commonly used seals. Friction-force tests were conducted at varying pressures, temperatures, and speeds on both new seals and seals previously subjected to prolonged endurance tests.
Friction and pressure
Test show that compared with standard U-seals and other friction-modified seals, the HL seal reduces friction across a wide pressure range.
Speed tests
The HL geometry helps eliminate stick-slip conditions at low speeds.
Results revealed that the HL seal geometry clearly reduces friction, compared with conventional U-seals and other versions of friction-modified seals. This applies across a wide pressure range from low levels up to 200 bar.
At low speeds the new design exhibits significant friction benefits. Particularly with regard to undesirable stick-slip, improvements were seen at higher temperatures and speeds across the entire pressure range.
The comparison demonstrates that friction losses encountered with the HL rod seal, depending on the load, can be reduced by 30 to 70% compared with a standard U-seal. This results in considerable energy savings, benefiting operating budgets and the environment.
Vector field
In vector calculus, a vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point in a subset of space.[1] A vector field in the plane, for instance, can be visualized as a collection of arrows with a given magnitude and direction each attached to a point in the plane. Vector fields are often used to model, for example, the speed and direction of a moving fluid throughout space, or the strength and direction of some force, such as the magnetic or gravitational force, as it changes from point to point.
The elements of differential and integral calculus extend to vector fields in a natural way. When a vector field represents force, the line integral of a vector field represents the work done by a force moving along a path, and under this interpretation conservation of energy is exhibited as a special case of the fundamental theorem of calculus. Vector fields can usefully be thought of as representing the velocity of a moving flow in space, and this physical intuition leads to notions such as the divergence (which represents the rate of change of volume of a flow) and curl (which represents the rotation of a flow).
In coordinates, a vector field on a domain in n-dimensional Euclidean space can be represented as a vector-valued function that associates an n-tuple of real numbers to each point of the domain. This representation of a vector field depends on the coordinate system, and there is a well-defined transformation law in passing from one coordinate system to the other. Vector fields are often discussed on open subsets of Euclidean space, but also make sense on other subsets such as surfaces, where they associate an arrow tangent to the surface at each point (a tangent vector).
More generally, vector fields are defined on differentiable manifolds, which are spaces that look like Euclidean space on small scales, but may have more complicated structure on larger scales. In this setting, a vector field gives a tangent vector at each point of the manifold (that is, a section of the tangent bundle to the manifold). Vector fields are one kind of tensor field.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field
Raised Weight Accumulator
A raised weight accumulator consists of a vertical cylinder containing fluid connected to the hydraulic line. The cylinder is closed by a piston on which a series of weights are placed that exert a downward force on the piston and thereby energizes the fluid in the cylinder. In contrast to compressed gas and spring accumulators, this type delivers a nearly constant pressure, regardless of the volume of fluid in the cylinder, until it is empty. (The pressure will decline somewhat as the cylinder is emptied due to the decline in weight of the remaining fluid.)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_accumulator#Raised_weight
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
In continuum mechanics, a fluid is said to be in hydrostatic equilibrium or hydrostatic balance when it is at rest, or when the flow velocity at each point is constant over time. This occurs when external forces such as gravity are balanced by a pressure gradient force.[1] For instance, the pressure-gradient force prevents gravity from collapsing Earth's atmosphere into a thin, dense shell, whereas gravity prevents the pressure gradient force from diffusing the atmosphere into space.
Hydrostatic equilibrium is the current distinguishing criterion between dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies, and has other roles in astrophysics and planetary geology. This qualification typically means that the object is symmetrically rounded into a spheroid or ellipsoid shape, where any irregular surface features are due to a relatively thin solid crust. There are 31 observationally confirmed such objects (apart from the Sun), sometimes called planemos,[2] in the Solar System, seven more[3] that are virtually certain, and a hundred or so more that are likely.[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium
The hhop gen 3 piston isolates the two hydrostatic liquid chambers, thus ensuring that the upper chamber has only a gravitational vector force acting upon the system, the scalar specific gravity field hydrostatic pressure is equalised internally within the container walls and open to atmospheric pressure. This creates a raised weight accumulator system to drive an alternator and pump the lower chamber water back to the reservoir at turbine exhaust. Looping this system would always be COP<1 (less than 1)due to the losses incurred on each cycle.
For a given flow rate the Pelton turbine will produce a constant electrical output. Electrolysis allows us to create a phase change in the lower water chamber, below the piston, causing a large stable volume pressure differential.. and pumping water. The heavy dense water has been replaced with a light low density gas and therefore a buoyancy effect has been introduced to the system. This creates a lifting force on the piston that must exceed breakout friction of the seals and the weight of the piston itself to raise it within the liquid column.
The energy available at the alternator output is now directly related to the energy required to create the gas from the electrolysis process. All steps in this process are less than 100% efficient as they are operating within a single frame or reference, the gravitational vector field which acts on everything with a relative downwards force (the force trying to pull you down through your chair right now).
However, the force required from buoyancy to raise the piston can be quantified and experimentally validated, becoming a constant for that system. The volume of the hollow piston will be fixed, its diameter and its height are fixed, therefore the diameter of the system liquid column is fixed.. but the height of both water chambers becomes a variable and equal to each other (as they are equal in size). The height of the water reservoirs is a variable in the first frame of reference, the gravitational vector field.. the piston is a constant in the second frame of reference, the specific scalar gravity field.. as a result all the work required to lift the piston weight through a vertical height is supplied by gravity in the first frame of reference vector field.. the process to access the secondary specific gravity field is accomplished from the phase change of liquid to gas and exploiting the volume pressure spring compression differential.
Archimedes' principle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle
Archimedes' principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 B.C.[4] For objects, floating and sunken, and in gases as well as liquids (i.e. a fluid), Archimedes' principle may be stated thus in terms of forces:
"Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object."
— Archimedes of Syracuse
8)
Add an electromagnet to your hhop electrolysis cell and trigger shock to your piston ring magnet, when your piston is at bottom of travel, and overcome breakout friction therefore reducing electrical energy required to balance gas creation demand (alternator to hho cell relationship). Volume of gas displacement required is potentially reduced and therefore electrical energy requirement from the alternator (run time from volume and energise pressure of top water chamber).
http://www.onlineconversion.com/object_volume_cylinder_tank.htm
http://www.onlineconversion.com/object_volume_cylinder.htm
Height
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height
Height is the measurement of vertical distance, but has two meanings in common use. It can either indicate how "tall" something is, or how "high up" it is. For example "The height of the building is 50 m" or "The height of the airplane is 10,000 m". When used to describe how high something like an airplane or mountain peak is from sea level, height is more often called altitude.[1] Height is measured along the vertical (y) axis between a specified point and another point.
In mathematics
In elementary models of space, height may indicate the third dimension, the other two being length and width. Height is normal to the plane formed by the length and width.
What have i done to the height dimension of the liquid cylinder chamber 'a' and 'b'.. input and output.. of the hhop gen 3 system, how is the hollow piston involved. ? how are they related in both frames of reference.. vector gravitational field and scalar specific gravity field.. from the latter COP>1 energy can be extracted.. as a user defined variable..!
On the Sphere and Cylinder
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Sphere_and_Cylinder?searchDepth=1
On the Sphere and Cylinder (Greek: Περὶ σφαίρας καὶ κυλίνδρου) is a work that was published by Archimedes in two volumes c. 225 BC.[1] It most notably details how to find the surface area of a sphere and the volume of the contained ball and the analogous values for a cylinder, and was the first to do so.[2]
and that the volume of the same is:
Volume = pi times the radius squared times the Height.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi
Newton's law of universal gravitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.[note 1] This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called induction.[2] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him; see the History section below.)
In modern language, the law states: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.[3] The first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.[4] It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after his death.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force arising between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and the electrostatic constant in place of the gravitational constant.
Newton's law has since been superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications. Relativity is required only when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with very strong gravitational fields, such as those found near extremely massive and dense objects, or at very close distances (such as Mercury's orbit around the sun).
Vector fields on spheres
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_fields_on_spheres
In mathematics, the discussion of vector fields on spheres was a classical problem of differential topology, beginning with the hairy ball theorem, and early work on the classification of division algebras.
Differential topology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_topology
In mathematics, differential topology is the field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential geometry and together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds.
Differentiable manifold
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable_manifold
In mathematics, a differentiable manifold is a type of manifold that is locally similar enough to a linear space to allow one to do calculus. Any manifold can be described by a collection of charts, also known as an atlas. One may then apply ideas from calculus while working within the individual charts, since each chart lies within a linear space to which the usual rules of calculus apply. If the charts are suitably compatible (namely, the transition from one chart to another is differentiable), then computations done in one chart are valid in any other differentiable chart.
In formal terms, a differentiable manifold is a topological manifold with a globally defined differential structure. Any topological manifold can be given a differential structure locally by using the homeomorphisms in its atlas and the standard differential structure on a linear space. To induce a global differential structure on the local coordinate systems induced by the homeomorphisms, their composition on chart intersections in the atlas must be differentiable functions on the corresponding linear space. In other words, where the domains of charts overlap, the coordinates defined by each chart are required to be differentiable with respect to the coordinates defined by every chart in the atlas. The maps that relate the coordinates defined by the various charts to one another are called transition maps.
Differentiability means different things in different contexts including: continuously differentiable, k times differentiable, smooth, and holomorphic. Furthermore, the ability to induce such a differential structure on an abstract space allows one to extend the definition of differentiability to spaces without global coordinate systems. A differential structure allows one to define the globally differentiable tangent space, differentiable functions, and differentiable tensor and vector fields. Differentiable manifolds are very important in physics. Special kinds of differentiable manifolds form the basis for physical theories such as classical mechanics, general relativity, and Yang–Mills theory. It is possible to develop a calculus for differentiable manifolds. This leads to such mathematical machinery as the exterior calculus. The study of calculus on differentiable manifolds is known as differential geometry.
Differential geometry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry
Differential geometry is a mathematical discipline that uses the techniques of differential calculus, integral calculus, linear algebra and multilinear algebra to study problems in geometry. The theory of plane and space curves and surfaces in the three-dimensional Euclidean space formed the basis for development of differential geometry during the 18th century and the 19th century.
Since the late 19th century, differential geometry has grown into a field concerned more generally with the geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. Differential geometry is closely related to differential topology and the geometric aspects of the theory of differential equations. The differential geometry of surfaces captures many of the key ideas and techniques characteristic of this field.
I was chatting to Graham earlier and I mentioned I don't mind if he makes his hhop gen 2 prototype video available to the general public:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqBq5aTvCOE
Listen to what Graham says between 2:40 and 2:48..
"I don't know whether Rob's thought was to.. it's actually moving the water prior to it being.. zzzzzz.. heh!"
In that moment Graham realised there are two cycles within the hhop process doing work, the gas displacement cycle and the combustion cycle. Those of you that understand hhop gen 3 will know that the two cycles are separated and the unused hho ignition recombination phase transition event energy release is available to be added to system output energy without being involved in the system ratio balance!
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.09.02, 20:31:50
I was chatting to Graham earlier and I mentioned I don't mind if he makes his hhop gen 2 prototype video available to the general public:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqBq5aTvCOE
Listen to what Graham says between 2:40 and 2:48..
"I don't know whether Rob's thought was to.. it's actually moving the water prior to it being.. zzzzzz.. heh!"
At 2:48 - 2:49 in the video the spark gap fires and the pipe jumps. Logic tells us that the ignition sent (what appears to us as instantaneous) a shockwave and made the pipe jump about. The water you can see pumped in spurts into the receiver later in the video is a secondary effect created by a reciprocal oscillating linear fluid mass (in this case highly dense liquid).
hhop gen 2 Hybrid
Uses atmospheric pressure equalisation to bleed the chamber of a less dense gas.
As a result a reservoir sump can be dug into any stream bed, even a shallow slow running stream, and hhop can be placed below the water line requiring no combustion cycle to function.
8)
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.09.06, 12:58:53
hhop gen 2 Hybrid
Uses atmospheric pressure equalisation to bleed the chamber of a less dense gas.
As a result a reservoir sump can be dug into any stream bed, even a shallow slow running stream, and hhop can be placed below the water line requiring no combustion cycle to function.
8)
Nice idea. Have you tried this to get an idea of what pump rates are possible vs current drawn.
I guess it would follow simple calculations based on gas evolution and liquid displacement. Just a matter of sizing then.
Dear evolvingape.
That has got to be the most elegantly simple design to date!!
Based on our experiments here......
https://youtu.be/rqBq5aTvCOE
Six watts input would displace the chamber volume to a height of what material the pump could stand without bursting!! Thousands of feet!!
And we have a fuel as a by product to boot. ;)
Very well done.
Cheers Grum.
Quote from: ION on 2015.09.06, 16:00:40
Nice idea. Have you tried this to get an idea of what pump rates are possible vs current drawn.
I guess it would follow simple calculations based on gas evolution and liquid displacement. Just a matter of sizing then.
Yes I have and the rates are favourable for the purpose I designed it for, running from a solar panel. Graham was using 6 Watts, I have used as little as 1/2 a Watt with a resultant loss in fluid flow (as less gas is being created at lower input energies)
The hhop gen 2 hybrid will keep people alive and irrigate the desert land with just a little more work from the community.
Quote from: Grumage on 2015.09.06, 17:15:21
Dear evolvingape.
That has got to be the most elegantly simple design to date!!
Based on our experiments here......
https://youtu.be/rqBq5aTvCOE
Six watts input would displace the chamber volume to a height of what material the pump could stand without bursting!! Thousands of feet!!
And we have a fuel as a by product to boot. ;)
Very well done.
Cheers Grum.
Thanks! :)
hhop gen 2 hybrid was the link between hhop gen 2 and hhop gen 3. hhop gen 2 is COP<1, hhop gen 3 is COP>1 O0
The fuel as a byproduct is useful in many ways!
Yes the gas pressure is stable at elevated pressures and is the defining factor of the height the pump can achieve. Here is a nice psi to foot head calculator:
http://www.convertunits.com/from/psi/to/foot+of+head
In hhop gen 3 the vertical axis is a variable that can have its Volume increased by 1 meter for a resultant 1.5psi pressure loss at the turbine input nozzle. The horizontal axis has no such pressure loss associated with it.. ;)
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.09.06, 19:06:17
The horizontal axis has no such pressure loss associated with it.. ;)
What variable is the horizontal liquid axis associated with ? If you change this ratio relationship how will it affect the ratios you have determined within the previous processes ?
Boyle's law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle's_law
Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law[1]) is an experimental gas law which describes how the pressure of a gas tends to decrease as the volume of a gas increases. A modern statement of Boyle's law is:
The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system.
Animated Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/aglussac.html
Air is a gas. Gases have various properties that we can observe with our senses, including the gas pressure, temperature (T), mass, and the volume (V) that contains the gas. Careful, scientific observation has determined that these variables are related to one another and that the values of these properties determine the state of the gas.
The relationship between temperature and volume, at a constant number of moles and pressure, is called Charles and Gay-Lussac's Law in honor of the two French scientists who first investigated this relationship. Charles did the original work, which was verified by Gay-Lussac. They observed that if the pressure is held constant, the volume V is equal to a constant times the temperature T
V = constant * T
In a scientific manner, we can fix any two of the four primary properties and study the nature of the relationship between the other two by varying one and observing the variation of the other. This slide shows a schematic "gas lab" in which we can illustrate the variation of the gas properties. In the lab a theoretical gas is confined in a blue container. The volume of the gas is shown in yellow and is determined by the position of a red piston. The volume can be changed by moving the red piston using the red screw at the top of the piston. The number of moles of the gas is indicated by the number of small black "molecules" in the volume. The number of moles can be changed by injecting or withdrawing molecules using the pump at the left. There are two probes inserted into the bottom of the container to measure the pressure and the temperature. The pressure can be changed by adding or removing green weights from the top of the red piston, and the temperature can be changed by heating the container with the "torch" at the bottom.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/glussac.html
Fluid Dynamics involves the interactions between an object and a surrounding fluid, a liquid, or a gas. Fluid dynamics play a major role in the development of thrust in a gas turbine engine, and in the generation of aerodynamic drag for flight within the atmosphere. To better understand these interactions, we need to know some things about gases.
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/gasprop.html
Characteristics of Gases
All matter is made from atoms with the configuration of the atom (number of protons, number of neutrons ..) determining the kind of matter present (oxygen, lead, silver, neon ...). Individual atoms can combine with other atoms to form molecules. Oxygen and nitrogen, which are the major components of air on Earth, occur in nature as diatomic (2 atom) molecules. The atmosphere of Mars is mostly composed of carbon dioxide, a molecule with one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Under normal conditions, matter exists as either a solid, a liquid, or a gas. Atmospheres are composed of gases. In any gas, we have a very large number of molecules that are only weakly attracted to each other and are free to move about in space. When studying gases, we can investigate the motions and interactions of individual molecules, or we can investigate the large scale action of the gas as a whole. Scientists refer to the large scale motion of the gas as the macro scale and the individual molecular motions as the micro scale. Some phenomenon are easier to understand and explain based on the macro scale, while other phenomenon are more easily explained on the micro scale. Macro scale investigations are based on things that we can easily observe and measure. But micro scale investigations are based on rather simple theories because we cannot actually observe an individual gas molecule in motion. Macro scale and micro scale investigations are just two views of the same thing.
Hydrostatic equilibrium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium
In continuum mechanics, a fluid is said to be in hydrostatic equilibrium or hydrostatic balance when it is at rest, or when the flow velocity at each point is constant over time. This occurs when external forces such as gravity are balanced by a pressure gradient force.[1] For instance, the pressure-gradient force prevents gravity from collapsing Earth's atmosphere into a thin, dense shell, whereas gravity prevents the pressure gradient force from diffusing the atmosphere into space.
Hydrostatic equilibrium is the current distinguishing criterion between dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies, and has other roles in astrophysics and planetary geology. This qualification typically means that the object is symmetrically rounded into a spheroid or ellipsoid shape, where any irregular surface features are due to a relatively thin solid crust. There are 31 observationally confirmed such objects (apart from the Sun), sometimes called planemos,[2] in the Solar System, seven more[3] that are virtually certain, and a hundred or so more that are likely.[3]
Pressure-gradient force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure-gradient_force
The pressure gradient force is the force which results when there is a difference in pressure across a surface. In general, a pressure is a force per unit area, across a surface. A difference in pressure across a surface then implies a difference in force, which can result in an acceleration according to Newton's second law, if there is no additional force to balance it. The resulting force is always directed from the region of higher-pressure to the region of lower-pressure. When a fluid is in an equilibrium state (i.e. there are no net forces, and no acceleration), the system is referred to as being in hydrostatic equilibrium. In the case of atmospheres, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the gravitational force, maintaining hydrostatic equilibrium. In the Earth's atmosphere, for example, air pressure decreases at increasing altitudes above the Earth's surface, thus providing a pressure gradient force which counteracts the force of gravity on the atmosphere.
Gas laws
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_laws
The gas laws were developed at the end of the 18th century, when scientists began to realize that relationships between the pressure, volume and temperature of a sample of gas could be obtained which would hold to a good approximation for all gases. Gases behave in a similar way over a wide variety of conditions because they all have molecules which are widely spaced, and the equation of state for an ideal gas is derived from kinetic theory. The earlier gas laws are now considered as special cases of the ideal gas equation, with one or more of the variables held constant.
Boyle's Law
Boyle's Law, published in 1662, states that, at constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume of a given mass of an ideal gas in a closed system is always constant. It can be verified experimentally using a pressure gauge and a variable volume container. It can also be derived from the kinetic theory of gases: if a container, with a fixed number of molecules inside, is reduced in volume, more molecules will strike a given area of the sides of the container per unit time, causing a greater pressure.
Charles' Law
Charles' Law, or the law of volumes, was found in 1787 by Jacques Charles. It states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, assuming a closed system.
Gay-Lussac's Law
Gay-Lussac's Law, or the Pressure Law, was found by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1809. It states that, for a given mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the pressure exerted on the sides of its container is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
Avogadro's Law
Avogadro's Law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the gas present in the container. This gives rise to the molar volume of a gas, which at STP is 22.4 dm3 (or litres).
Combined gas law
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_gas_law
The combined gas law is a gas law that combines Charles's law, Boyle's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. There is no official founder for this law; it is merely an amalgamation of the three previously discovered laws. These laws each relate one thermodynamic variable to another mathematically while holding everything else constant. Charles's law states that volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other as long as pressure is held constant. Boyle's law asserts that pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other at fixed temperature. Finally, Gay-Lussac's law introduces a direct proportionality between temperature and pressure as long as it is at a constant volume. The inter-dependence of these variables is shown in the combined gas law, which clearly states that:
"The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a system remains constant."
Audi creates green 'e-diesel fuel of the future' using just carbon dioxide and water
http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/audi-creates-green-e-diesel-fuel-future-using-just-carbon-dioxide-water-1498524
German car manufacturer Audi says it has created the "fuel of the future" made solely from water, carbon dioxide and renewable sources.
The synthetic "e-diesel" was made following a commissioning phase of just four months at a plant in Dresden, Germany.Unlike regular diesel, the clear fuel does not contain any sulphur or fossil oil, while it has an overall energy efficiency of around 70%.
Germany's federal minister of education and research, Dr Johanna Wanka, said she has already used the fuel in her Audi A8, while the company hopes the Dresden factory, operated by clean tech company Sunfire, will produce 160 litres of it every day in the coming months.
"This synthetic diesel, made using CO2, is a huge success for our sustainability research," Wanka said. "If we can make widespread use of CO2 as a raw material, we will make a crucial contribution to climate protection and the efficient use of resources, and put the fundamentals of the 'green economy' in place."
Kolbe electrolysis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolbe_electrolysis
electrolysis of acetic acid yields ethane and carbon dioxide
Alkane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane
In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is a saturated hydrocarbon. Alkanes consist only of hydrogen and carbon atoms and all bonds are single bonds.[1] Alkanes (technically, always acyclic or open-chain compounds) have the general chemical formula CnH2n+2. For example, Methane is CH4, in which n=1 (n being the number of Carbon atoms). Alkanes belong to a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members differ by a molecular mass of 14.03u (mass of a methanediyl group, —CH2—, one carbon atom of mass 12.01u, and two hydrogen atoms of mass ≈1.01u each). There are two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil)[2] and natural gas.
Sabatier reaction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatier_reaction
The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process was discovered by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in the 1910s. It involves the reaction of hydrogen with carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures (optimally 300–400 °C) and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst to produce methane and water. Optionally, ruthenium on alumina (aluminium oxide) makes a more efficient catalyst.
It has been proposed in a renewable-energy-dominated energy system to use the excess electricity generated by wind, solar photovoltaic, hydro, marine current, etc. to make methane (natural gas) via water electrolysis and the subsequent application of the Sabatier reaction.[1][2] In contrast to a direct usage of hydrogen for transport or energy storage applications,[3] the methane can be injected into the existing gas network, which in many countries has one or two years of gas storage capacity. The methane can then be used on demand to generate electricity (and heat—combined heat and power) overcoming low points of renewable energy production. The process is electrolysis of water by electricity to create hydrogen (which can partly be used directly in fuel cells) and the addition of carbon dioxide CO2 (Sabatier process) to create methane. The CO2 can be extracted from the air or fossil fuel waste gases by the amine process, amongst many others. It is a low-CO2 system, and has similar efficiencies of today's energy system. A 250 kW demonstration plant was ready in 2012 in Germany.[4]
hhop gen 3 is designed to plug in as the energy source, providing the electrical energy and electrolysis byproduct fuel, in place of a traditional renewable energy power source.
Now you can start fuel processing and work your way up the Alkane chain.
Hydrostatics
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/hydstat.htm
Hydrostatics is about the pressures exerted by a fluid at rest. Any fluid is meant, not just water. It is usually relegated to an early chapter in Fluid Mechanics texts, since its results are widely used in that study. The study yields many useful results of its own, however, such as forces on dams, buoyancy and hydraulic actuation, and is well worth studying for such practical reasons. It is an excellent example of deductive mathematical physics, one that can be understood easily and completely from a very few fundamentals, and in which the predictions agree closely with experiment. There are few better illustrations of the use of the integral calculus, as well as the principles of ordinary statics, available to the student. A great deal can be done with only elementary mathematics. Properly adapted, the material can be used from the earliest introduction of school science, giving an excellent example of a quantitative science with many possibilities for hands-on experiences.
The definition of a fluid deserves careful consideration. Although time is not a factor in hydrostatics, it enters in the approach to hydrostatic equilibrium. It is usually stated that a fluid is a substance that cannot resist a shearing stress, so that pressures are normal to confining surfaces. Geology has now shown us clearly that there are substances which can resist shearing forces over short time intervals, and appear to be typical solids, but which flow like liquids over long time intervals. Such materials include wax and pitch, ice, and even rock. A ball of pitch, which can be shattered by a hammer, will spread out and flow in months. Ice, a typical solid, will flow in a period of years, as shown in glaciers, and rock will flow over hundreds of years, as in convection in the mantle of the earth. Shear earthquake waves, with periods of seconds, propagate deep in the earth, though the rock there can flow like a liquid when considered over centuries. The rate of shearing may not be strictly proportional to the stress, but exists even with low stress. Viscosity may be the physical property that varies over the largest numerical range, competing with electrical resistivity.
There are several familiar topics in hydrostatics which often appear in expositions of introductory science, and which are also of historical interest that can enliven their presentation. The following will be discussed briefly here:
Pressure and its measurement
Atmospheric pressure and its effects
Maximum height to which water can be raised by a suction pump
The siphon
Discovery of atmospheric pressure and invention of the barometer
Hydraulic equivalent of a lever
Pumps
Forces on a submerged surface
The Hydrostatic Paradox
Buoyancy (Archimedes' Principle)
Measurement of Specific Gravity
References
A study of hydrostatics can also include capillarity, the ideal gas laws, the velocity of sound, and hygrometry. These interesting applications will not be discussed in this article. At a beginning level, it may also be interesting to study the volumes and areas of certain shapes, or at a more advanced level, the forces exerted by heavy liquids on their containers. Hydrostatics is a very concrete science that avoids esoteric concepts and advanced mathematics. It is also much easier to demonstrate than Newtonian mechanics.
Hydrostatic Pressure in a Liquid
http://faculty.wwu.edu/vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/Pressure/HydroStatic.html
The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid is a result the weight of the liquid acting on a unit area at that depth plus any pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.
The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth depends only upon the density of the liquid ρ and the distance below the surface of the liquid h.
Pressure is not really a vector even though it looks like it in the sketches. The arrows indicate the direction of the force that the pressure would exert on a surface it is contact with.
Liquid can be both a hydrostatic pressure and a weight.. the weight has gravitational potential energy because the scalar hydrostatic fields are seperated by a piston face preventing pressure equalisation.
The hollow core of the piston has its density manipulated within the specific gravity field invoking new forces to the system. The gravitational potential energy input is directly related to the electromagnetic energy output via phase change within the specific gravity field.
A hhop gen 3 COP<1 device will have a density and resultant force within the SGF ratio of less than 1. The opposite is also true, a COP>1 hhop gen 3 will have a larger input potential than output energy required to trigger buoyancy of the piston (via density change because you pumped water out using gas). Taller water reservoir has more potential energy but same amount of force is required to trigger buoyancy force zero point polarity switch as the dimensions (length, width, height) have not changed for_the_ piston.
Communicating vessels
Communicating vessels is a name given to a set of containers containing a homogeneous fluid: when the liquid settles, it balances out to the same level in all of the containers regardless of the shape and volume of the containers. If additional liquid is added to one vessel, the liquid will again find a new equal level in all the connected vessels.This process is part of Stevin's Law[1] and occurs because gravity and pressure are constant in each vessel (hydrostatic pressure).[2]
Blaise Pascal proved in the seventeenth century that the pressure exerted on a molecule of a liquid is transmitted in full and with the same intensity in all directions.
Applications
Since the days of ancient Rome, the concept of communicating vessels has been used for indoor plumbing, via aquifers and lead pipes. Water will reach the same level in all parts of the system, which acts as communicating vessels, regardless of what the lowest point is of the pipes – although in practical terms the lowest point of the system depends on the ability of the plumbing to withstand the pressure of the liquid. In cities, water towers are frequently used so that city plumbing will function as communicating vessels, distributing water to higher floors of buildings with sufficient pressure.
Hydraulic presses, using systems of communicating vessels, are widely used in various applications of industrial processes.
Artesian aquifer
An artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure. This causes the water level in a well to rise to a point where hydrostatic equilibrium has been reached.
A well drilled into such an aquifer is called an artesian well. If water reaches the ground surface under the natural pressure of the aquifer, the well is called a flowing artesian well.[1]
An aquifer is a geologic layer of porous and permeable material such as sand and gravel, limestone, or sandstone, through which water flows and is stored. An artesian aquifer is confined between impermeable rocks or clay which causes this positive pressure. Not all the aquifers are artesian, because the water table must reach the surface (not the case for underground groundwater such as, for example, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System). The recharging of aquifers happens when the water table at its recharge zone is at a higher elevation than the head of the well.
Fossil water aquifers can also be artesian if they are under sufficient pressure from the surrounding rocks. This is similar to how many newly tapped oil wells are pressurized.
Artesian wells were named after the former province of Artois in France, where many artesian wells were drilled by Carthusian monks from 1126.
Speed of sound
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_sound
The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave propagating through an elastic medium. The SI unit of the speed of sound is the metre per second (m/s). In dry air at 20 °C, the speed of sound is 343.2 metres per second (1,126 ft/s). This is 1,236 kilometres per hour (768 mph; 667 kn), or a kilometre in 2.914 s or a mile in 4.689 s.
The speed of sound in an ideal gas is independent of frequency, but does vary slightly with frequency in a real gas. It is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, but is independent of pressure or density for a given ideal gas. Sound speed in air varies slightly with pressure only because air is not quite an ideal gas. Although (in the case of gases only) the speed of sound is expressed in terms of a ratio of both density and pressure, these quantities cancel in ideal gases at any given temperature, composition, and heat capacity. This leads to a velocity formula for ideal gases which includes only the latter independent variables.
In common everyday speech, speed of sound refers to the speed of sound waves in air. However, the speed of sound varies from substance to substance. Sound travels faster in liquids and non-porous solids than it does in air. It travels about 4.3 times as fast in water (1,484 m/s), and nearly 15 times as fast in iron (5,120 m/s), as in air at 20 °C. Sound waves in solids are composed of compression waves (just as in gases and liquids), but there is also a different type of sound wave called a shear wave, which occurs only in solids. These different types of waves in solids usually travel at different speeds, as exhibited in seismology. The speed of a compression sound wave in solids is determined by the medium's compressibility, shear modulus and density. The speed of shear waves is determined only by the solid material's shear modulus and density.
In fluid dynamics, the speed of sound in a fluid medium (gas or liquid) is used as a relative measure for the speed of an object moving through the medium. The speed of an object divided by the speed of sound in the fluid is called the Mach number. Objects moving at speeds greater than Mach1 are travelling at supersonic speeds.
Hi Rob and thanks for all the refresher courses, nice to brush up on this stuff.
Quote from: ION on 2015.09.15, 23:36:20
Hi Rob and thanks for all the refresher courses, nice to brush up on this stuff.
No worries O0
Quote from: ION on 2015.09.06, 16:00:40
what pump rates are possible vs current drawn.
at what pressure, (gravitational resistance, weight) as well as friction resistance and foot head.
Quote from: ION on 2015.09.06, 16:00:40
I guess it would follow simple calculations based on gas evolution and liquid displacement. Just a matter of sizing then.
Exactly, as you are phase transitioning (changing) a liquid to a gas the gas laws must be included in your analysis. It is a matter of sizing yes, but because you are sending all of system 1 output energy (in the form of electricity) back into system 1, and the gas laws have been invoked (huge volume increase) within an environment itself energised by gravitational potential energy (hydraulic reservoir), an imbalance is created. This brings in Archimedes buoyancy force and in so doing the height axis becomes an independant variable, that is able to increase system 1 input potential energy available. There is a minor constant loss associated with this variable (1.5psi per metre pressure loss, pumping water vertically up) and therefore it is not infinite.
The radius of the piston face is locked in the horizontal axis, as changing it will change your ratio of 1 needed to have a negative buoyancy force on the piston. However once you have established your energy ratio required to produce enough from your upper water reservoir to create the amount of gas you need to change the density of the piston and make it ascend. This buoyancy upthrust force is provided by the gravitational force pulling the more dense liquid water down and displacing the less dense gas upwards (and the hollow piston housing that is containing the gas, hence the pressure equalisation valve sleeved through the piston face walls to remove fluid flow resistance [backpressure] at the seal walls).
An interesting observation is that the alternator output is constant and is powered by the water wheel, therefore zero user energy power in is required. COP infinity (whatever that means). The electrical energy produced (COP<1 around 80%+ efficient standard alternator) is fed directly to the electrolysis cell, a resonant situation from this might develop and could enhance gas production requiring less energy in to achieve a ratio of 1 (smaller system footprint).. however.. the established system relationships (ratios) would remain the same!
:)
I put the forces at work in buoyancy picture up a while ago.
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg49567#msg49567
Is the diagram incorrect, partially correct or fully correct ? (anyone).
Geometry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry
Geometry (from the Ancient Greek: γεωμετρία; geo- "earth", -metron "measurement") is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a body of practical knowledge concerning lengths, areas, and volumes, with elements of formal mathematical science emerging in the West as early as Thales (6th century BC). By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into an axiomatic form by Euclid, whose treatment—Euclidean geometry—set a standard for many centuries to follow.[1] Archimedes developed ingenious techniques for calculating areas and volumes, in many ways anticipating modern integral calculus. The field of astronomy, especially as it relates to mapping the positions of stars and planets on the celestial sphere and describing the relationship between movements of celestial bodies, served as an important source of geometric problems during the next one and a half millennia. In the classical world, both geometry and astronomy were considered to be part of the Quadrivium, a subset of the seven liberal arts considered essential for a free citizen to master.
The introduction of coordinates by René Descartes and the concurrent developments of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since geometric figures such as plane curves could now be represented analytically in the form of functions and equations. This played a key role in the emergence of infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century. Furthermore, the theory of perspective showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the origin of projective geometry. The subject of geometry was further enriched by the study of the intrinsic structure of geometric objects that originated with Euler and Gauss and led to the creation of topology and differential geometry.
In Euclid's time, there was no clear distinction between physical and geometrical space. Since the 19th-century discovery of non-Euclidean geometry, the concept of space has undergone a radical transformation and raised the question of which geometrical space best fits physical space. With the rise of formal mathematics in the 20th century, 'space' (whether 'point', 'line', or 'plane') lost its intuitive contents, so today one has to distinguish between physical space, geometrical spaces (in which 'space', 'point' etc. still have their intuitive meanings) and abstract spaces. Contemporary geometry considers manifolds, spaces that are considerably more abstract than the familiar Euclidean space, which they only approximately resemble at small scales. These spaces may be endowed with additional structure which allow one to speak about length. Modern geometry has many ties to physics as is exemplified by the links between pseudo-Riemannian geometry and general relativity. One of the youngest physical theories, string theory, is also very geometric in flavour.
While the visual nature of geometry makes it initially more accessible than other mathematical areas such as algebra or number theory, geometric language is also used in contexts far removed from its traditional, Euclidean provenance (for example, in fractal geometry and algebraic geometry).[2]
Euclidean geometry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Alexandrian Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry: the Elements. Euclid's method consists in assuming a small set of intuitively appealing axioms, and deducing many other propositions (theorems) from these. Although many of Euclid's results had been stated by earlier mathematicians,[1] Euclid was the first to show how these propositions could fit into a comprehensive deductive and logical system.[2] The Elements begins with plane geometry, still taught in secondary school as the first axiomatic system and the first examples of formal proof. It goes on to the solid geometry of three dimensions. Much of the Elements states results of what are now called algebra and number theory, explained in geometrical language.[3]
For more than two thousand years, the adjective "Euclidean" was unnecessary because no other sort of geometry had been conceived. Euclid's axioms seemed so intuitively obvious (with the possible exception of the parallel postulate) that any theorem proved from them was deemed true in an absolute, often metaphysical, sense. Today, however, many other self-consistent non-Euclidean geometries are known, the first ones having been discovered in the early 19th century. An implication of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity is that physical space itself is not Euclidean, and Euclidean space is a good approximation for it only where the gravitational field is weak.[4]
Euclidean geometry is an example of synthetic geometry, in that it proceeds logically from axioms to propositions without the use of coordinates. This is in contrast to analytic geometry, which uses coordinates.
Integral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral
The integral is an important concept in mathematics. Integration is one of the two main operations in calculus, with its inverse, differentiation, being the other.
Derivative
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative
The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of a quantity (a function value or dependent variable) which is determined by another quantity (the independent variable). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the object changes when time is advanced.
The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. This means that it describes the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the "instantaneous rate of change", the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.
Derivatives may be generalized to functions of several real variables. In this generalization, the derivative is reinterpreted as a linear transformation whose graph is (after an appropriate translation) the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables. It can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables. For a real-valued function of several variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector.
The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. The reverse process is called antidifferentiation. The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same as integration. Differentiation and integration constitute the two fundamental operations in single-variable calculus.[1]
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.07.16, 17:17:24
I have put one water tower 'b' on top of another water tower 'a'.. I have isolated the hydrostatic pressure equalisation potential for both chambers, from each other via the piston. System open to atmospheric pressure on both columns. Chamber b acts as a Mass only, gravity filled. Chamber a always has hydrostatic pressure, with bias set by NRV resistance (psi cracking pressure). 1.5 psi loss for every 1 meter of output column elevation, therefore pressure loss through elevation (pumping vertically) considered negligible in a 1 meter high system. Leverage Pascal's principle to extend run time and increase pressure at the expense of flow rate. The electrical energy required to complete the electrolytic reset of the hollow piston will become a constant, and the run time on the turbine at a given RPM will also, so when they match you have COP=1. Increase the sizes of reservoirs a and b and extend the run time of the the water wheel alternator therefore COP>1 becomes a variable.
If you just keep adding chamber b's you will increase the pressure proportionally for each Mass unit added to the system, as long as hydrostatic separation is maintained chamber b will be a weight vector only as seen by the system.
You will not have to adjust the chamber a size as you have already sized it to system closed loop COP=1.
High pressure is usually more efficient O0
Weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight
In science and engineering, the weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity.[1][2] Weight is a vector whose magnitude (a scalar quantity), often denoted by an italic letter W, is the product of the mass m of the object and the magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration g;[3] thus: W = mg. The unit of measurement for weight is that of force, which in the International System of Units (SI) is the newton. For example, an object with a mass of one kilogram has a weight of about 9.8 newtons on the surface of the Earth, and about one-sixth as much on the Moon. In this sense of weight, a body can be weightless only if it is far away (in principle infinitely far away) from any other mass. Although weight and mass are scientifically distinct quantities, the terms are often confused with each other in everyday use.[4]
There is also a rival tradition within Newtonian physics and engineering which sees weight as that which is measured when one uses scales. There the weight is a measure of the magnitude of the reaction force exerted on a body. Typically, in measuring an object's weight, the object is placed on scales at rest with respect to the earth, but the definition can be extended to other states of motion. Thus, in a state of free fall, the weight would be zero. In this second sense of weight, terrestrial objects can be weightless. Ignoring air resistance, the famous apple falling from the tree, on its way to meet the ground near Isaac Newton, is weightless.
Further complications in elucidating the various concepts of weight have to do with the theory of relativity according to which gravity is modelled as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime. In the teaching community, a considerable debate has existed for over half a century on how to define weight for their students. The current situation is that a multiple set of concepts co-exist and find use in their various contexts.[2]
I created the specific gravity field model to unify the concepts and provide operational capability for the extraction of electrical energy function COP>1.
Vertical pressure variation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_pressure_variation
Vertical pressure variation is the variation in pressure as a function of elevation. Depending on the fluid in question and the context being referred to, it may also vary significantly in dimensions perpendicular to elevation as well, and these variations have relevance in the context of pressure gradient force and its effects. However, the vertical variation is especially significant, as it results from the pull of gravity on the fluid; namely, for the same given fluid, a decrease in elevation within it corresponds to a taller column of fluid weighing down on that point.
A relatively simple version [1] of the vertical fluid pressure variation is simply that the pressure difference between two elevations is the product of elevation change, gravity, and density. The equation is as follows: (see link)
P is pressure,
ρ is density,
g is acceleration of gravity, and
h is height.
The delta symbol indicates a change in a given variable. Since g is negative, an increase in height will correspond to a decrease in pressure, which fits with the previously mentioned reasoning about the weight of a column of fluid.
When density and gravity are approximately constant, simply multiplying height difference, gravity, and density will yield a good approximation of pressure difference. Where different fluids are layered on top of one another, the total pressure difference would be obtained by adding the two pressure differences; the first being from point 1 to the boundary, the second being from the boundary to point 2; which would just involve substituting the ρ and (Δh) values for each fluid and taking the sum of the results. If the density of the fluid varies with height, mathematical integration would be required.
Whether or not density and gravity can be reasonably approximated as constant depends on the level of accuracy needed, but also on the length scale of height difference, as gravity and density also decrease with higher elevation. For density in particular, the fluid in question is also relevant; seawater, for example, is considered an incompressible fluid; its density can vary with height, but much less significantly than that of air, so given the same height difference, water's density can be more reasonably approximated as constant than that of air.
System
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex/intricate whole.[1]
Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning.
Fields that study the general properties of systems include systems science, systems theory, systems modeling, systems engineering, cybernetics, dynamical systems, thermodynamics, complex systems, system analysis and design and systems architecture. They investigate the abstract properties of systems' matter and organization, looking for concepts and principles that are independent of domain, substance, type, or temporal scale.[citation needed]
Some systems share common characteristics, including:[citation needed]
A system has structure, it contains parts (or components) that are directly or indirectly related to each other;
A system has behavior, it exhibits processes that fulfill its function or purpose;
A system has interconnectivity: the parts and processes are connected by structural and/or behavioral relationships;
A system's structure and behavior may be decomposed via subsystems and sub-processes to elementary parts and process steps;
A system has behavior that, in relativity to its surroundings, may be categorized as both fast and strong.
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or behavior. Alternatively, and usually in the context of complex social systems, the term institution is used to describe the set of rules that govern structure and/or behavior.
Has An Important Property Of Fluids Been Overlooked ?
http://www.besslerwheel.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=104653#104653&sid=6ab21cac8cbcc77d36eeb81fde1a5994
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_6JxoL8qD4
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pasc.html
Cylinder (geometry)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_%28geometry%29
A cylinder (from Greek κύλινδρος – kulindros, "roller, tumbler"[1]) is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line, the axis of the cylinder. The solid enclosed by this surface and by two planes perpendicular to the axis is also called a cylinder. The surface area and the volume of a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity.
Cone
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone
A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex.
More precisely, it is the solid figure bounded by a base in a plane and by a surface (called the lateral surface) formed by the locus of all straight line segments joining the apex to the perimeter of the base. The term "cone" sometimes refers just to the surface of this solid figure, or just to the lateral surface.
The axis of a cone is the straight line (if any), passing through the apex, about which the base (and the whole cone) has a rotational symmetry.
In common usage in elementary geometry, cones are assumed to be right circular, where circular means that the base is a circle and right means that the axis passes through the centre of the base at right angles to its plane. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis does not pass perpendicularly through the centre of the base.[1] In general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere (though it is usually assumed that the base is bounded and therefore has finite area, and that the apex lies outside the plane of the base).
A cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid.
Frustum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustum
In geometry, a frustum[1] (plural: frusta or frustums) is the portion of a solid (normally a cone or pyramid) that lies between two parallel planes cutting it. A right frustum is a parallel truncation of a right pyramid.[1]
The term is commonly used in computer graphics to describe the three-dimensional region which is visible on the screen, the "viewing frustum", which is formed by a clipped pyramid; in particular, frustum culling is a method of hidden surface determination.
In the aerospace industry, frustum is the common term for the fairing between two stages of a multistage rocket (such as the Saturn V), which is shaped like a truncated cone. It also applies to the essential drive element of the so-far unproven Emdrive.
hhop gen 3 inverted frustum cone reservoir.
This model keeps the working piston diameter constant, which is a critical COP ratio variable, while leveraging the reservoir weight for increased pressure on the working fluid.
hhop gen 3
The drawing shows the importance of the hydrostatic isolation valve, creating two bodies from one along the boundary plane (piston) when the valve is closed.
This design does not need magnets or NRV's and is hydrostatically in balance with the atmosphere (air).
The working fluid ejected from the turbine exhaust is pumped directly into the upper reservoir therefore adding mass and increasing weight during the working cycle.
The resultant increase of liquid pressure in the lower chamber increases efficiency at the turbine PMA.
Wireless solenoid actuated valves are employed within the hollow piston to control cycle timing and flip between hydrostatic pressure equalisation and isolation.
An additional valve could be added to the hho cell (not shown on drawing) to isolate it once the piston begins to ascend, building gas pressure for injection on next cycle.
hhop gen 2 Hybrid
A spring loaded valve set normally closed, is opened when the liquid is pumped out and replaced by the gas, by the increase of weight of the piston minus it's buoyancy force contribution.
When the gas is purged water is pumped in by atmospheric pressure and the buoyancy force returns, closing the valve, and allowing spring pressure and gas pressure to assert themselves.
A simple home experiment you can have fun with! :)
Add a hho cell as the prime mover, submerge the assembly below the liquid / gas boundary plane, and incorporate a governed valve.. you have a hhop gen 2 Hybrid.
O0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXTdFvPm8Xk&feature=youtu.be
Fluid Pressure
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/pressure.html
An important property of any gas is its pressure. We have some experience with gas pressure that we don't have with properties like viscosity and compressibility. Every day we hear the TV meteorologist give value of the barometric pressure of the atmosphere (29.8 inches of mercury, for example). And most of us have blown up a balloon or used a pump to inflate a bicycle tire or a basketball.
Because understanding what pressure is and how it works is so fundamental to the understanding of aerodynamics, we are including several slides on gas pressure in the Beginner's Guide. An interactive atmosphere simulator allows you to study how static air pressure changes with altitude. The FoilSim program shows you how the pressure varies around a lifting wing, and the EngineSim program shows how the pressure changes through a turbine engine. Another simulator helps you study how pressure changes across shock waves that occur at high speeds. There are two ways to look at pressure: (1) the small scale action of individual air molecules or (2) the large scale action of a large number of molecules.
Molecular Definition of Pressure
From the kinetic theory of gases, a gas is composed of a large number of molecules that are very small relative to the distance between molecules. The molecules of a gas are in constant, random motion and frequently collide with each other and with the walls of any container. The molecules possess the physical properties of mass, momentum, and energy. The momentum of a single molecule is the product of its mass and velocity, while the kinetic energy is one half the mass times the square of the velocity. As the gas molecules collide with the walls of a container, as shown on the left of the figure, the molecules impart momentum to the walls, producing a force perpendicular to the wall. The sum of the forces of all the molecules striking the wall divided by the area of the wall is defined to be the pressure. The pressure of a gas is then a measure of the average linear momentum of the moving molecules of a gas. The pressure acts perpendicular (normal) to the wall; the tangential (shear) component of the force is related to the viscosity of the gas.
Scalar Quantity
Let us look at a static gas; one that does not appear to move or flow. While the gas as a whole does not appear to move, the individual molecules of the gas, which we cannot see, are in constant random motion. Because we are dealing with a nearly infinite number of molecules and because the motion of the individual molecules is random in every direction, we do not detect any motion. If we enclose the gas within a container, we detect a pressure in the gas from the molecules colliding with the walls of our container. We can put the walls of our container anywhere inside the gas, and the force per area (the pressure) is the same. We can shrink the size of our "container" down to an infinitely small point, and the pressure has a single value at that point. Therefore, pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector quantity. It has a magnitude but no direction associated with it. Pressure acts in all directions at a point inside a gas. At the surface of a gas, the pressure force acts perpendicular to the surface.
If the gas as a whole is moving, the measured pressure is different in the direction of the motion. The ordered motion of the gas produces an ordered component of the momentum in the direction of the motion. We associate an additional pressure component, called dynamic pressure, with this fluid momentum. The pressure measured in the direction of the motion is called the total pressure and is equal to the sum of the static and dynamic pressureas described by Bernoulli's equation.
Macro Scale Definition of Pressure
Turning to the larger scale, the pressure is a state variable of a gas, like the temperature and the density. The change in pressure during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics. You can explore the effects of pressure on other gas variables at the animated gas lab. Although pressure itself is a scalar, we can define a pressure force to be equal to the pressure (force/area) times the surface area in a direction perpendicular to the surface. The pressure force is a vector quantity.
Pressure forces have some unique qualities as compared to gravitational or mechanical forces. In the figure shown above on the right, we have a red gas that is confined in a box. A mechanical force is applied to the top of the box. The pressure force within the box opposes the applied force according to Newton's third law of motion. The scalar pressure equals the external force divided by the area of the top of the box. Inside the gas, the pressure acts in all directions. So the pressure pushes on the bottom of the box and on the sides. This is different from simple solid mechanics. If the red gas were a solid, there would be no forces applied to the sides of the box; the applied force would be simply transmitted to the bottom. But in a gas, because the molecules are free to move about and collide with one another, a force applied in the vertical direction causes forces in the horizontal direction.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.11.09, 18:24:54
Pressure forces have some unique qualities as compared to gravitational or mechanical forces. In the figure shown above on the right, we have a red gas that is confined in a box. A mechanical force is applied to the top of the box. The pressure force within the box opposes the applied force according to Newton's third law of motion. The scalar pressure equals the external force divided by the area of the top of the box. Inside the gas, the pressure acts in all directions. So the pressure pushes on the bottom of the box and on the sides. This is different from simple solid mechanics. If the red gas were a solid, there would be no forces applied to the sides of the box; the applied force would be simply transmitted to the bottom. But in a gas, because the molecules are free to move about and collide with one another, a force applied in the vertical direction causes forces in the horizontal direction.
The upper chamber of hhop gen 3 is defined as a hollow piston reservoir. As such it has rigid walls that are able to withstand internal hydrostatic operating pressure, without elastic deformation. (Pascal's Barrel)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal's_barrel
If your piston bulges it will interfere with the housing wall clearance and cause friction drag on the piston. The piston being a solid will have a weight force vector quantity only.
The liquid water inside the hollow piston reservoir has both a weight vector and an internal pressure scalar. If the hydrostatic pressure equalisation valve sleeved through the hollow piston is closed, the scalar pressure fields in both chambers are prevented from equalising thus forming two separate fields.
The upper chamber has gravitational potential energy and acts as a weight force only, compressing the liquid chamber below it, energising the scalar field of the lower chamber.
The piston at bottom of travel has zero gravitational potential energy remaining, but it does have the scalar pressure in the secondary field.
The working fluid is pumped vertically and emerges at the turbine exhaust to atmospheric pressure, having done work on the water wheel alternator. It falls under gravity into the hollow piston reservoir and does work on the chamber below.
The piston itself can be buoyant, enough to overcome breakout friction of the piston seal, as the upper chamber is defined in the gravitational field only as a vector force. This means that a steadily increasing force (such as water pouring in) can overcome the negative buoyancy force and the piston will become heavy.
Opening the equalisation valve will allow hydrostatic equilibrium to occur and the piston will ascend as there is only one field of reference now.. the specific gravity field.
hhop gen 4
No hho cell, the piston itself is set naturally buoyant, enough force to reliably raise it during the reset cycle.
The COP=1 ratio is now set to PMA output vs Power required to operate valve.
Gravity is the prime mover in both parts of the cycle, the valve switches between one gravitational frame of reference and another.
hhop gen 2 Hybrid
Exploiting the buoyancy force differential between the two fluids, gas and liquid, to operate the valve.
I came across this article today by Simon Derricutt, and I think it's conceptual approach is an excellent teaching tool.
I have reproduced it below (please see link for conceptual images referred to) and will comment in following posts:
Some energy basics
by Simon Derricutt | Nov 20, 2015
http://revolution-green.com/some-energy-basics/
In a lot of the FE blogs and claims you'll see some "interesting" ideas about "where the energy comes from". Some people of course avoid that little theoretical bit and purely say "this works" and "give me some money and I'll show you a video of it". Alternatively, they may say it worked when they did it before and if you give them some money they'll build a bigger one that will solve all the world's problems.
Of course, human languages tend to be circular in their definitions, since each word is defined in terms of others, and it's only when we're describing something solid, like a tree, that we can point at it and say "that's what this word means". There is thus some question of what we actually mean (or maybe what is understood) when we talk of mass, energy or suchlike where there isn't something to actually point at. This is maybe worse when we talk about mass and energy, since they are the same thing in a different state.
We can start with the point that energy is the capacity to do work, but that means we also have to define work and also misses the point that when we do work we have the same amount of total energy at the end as when we started – that work is actually done in the course of movement of energy from one place to another and energy itself is neither created or destroyed in any process we know of. All too quickly the conversation gets tied into little knots and the original idea of pinning down where the energy comes from is diverted into needing to also say where it goes to.
I'll assume that you can look up the terms in the wiki or elsewhere and get a grounding in the ideas of what mass and energy are, therefore. We know what mass is. In a gravitational field a mass has weight and if you use a certain force on it it will accelerate in the direction of the force. Convert that mass into energy (using the formula E=mc²) and instead of a small amount of mass you have a whole lot of energy. That conversion of a small amount of mass into energy powers everything we do. When we burn oil we convert a small amount of mass into the kinetic energy of heat, and so there is a small loss of our initial mass – almost too small a difference to actually measure but we can calculate it. Kinetic energy is energy of movement, and it thus is always moving. It makes sense that any potential energy of any type is actually stored as mass, too, so the spring under tension is just that little bit more mass than the relaxed spring and the weight you've just lifted above your head (thus adding gravitational potential energy) has thus also just a bit more mass than when it was on the floor.
We've thus reached the point where I can say kinetic energy is stored in movement and potential energy is stored in mass. I've also stated that work can only be done when energy moves from one place to another, so the only thing that can do work is kinetic energy.
If we place some kinetic energy into a box (see the starting state in the first picture), then it will move from where we put it. When we're talking about heat in a gas, then the direction it moves in will be random. Sometimes it will go towards the centre, sometimes it will move away, but since there are far more directions that are away from the centre than directly towards it, after a bit of time t we'll see this second picture, where although there is a bit more density around the centre area the energy density is less and more diffuse. Pretty-well whatever type of energy we put into an open space, it will spread away from where it's put in all directions open to it. In these pictures I haven't put in any constraints except for the outer bounding box, but similar pictures could be produced for any actual situation by applying a bit of maths. Of course, if it's actually photons we put in to the box instead of some hot air, the diffusion outwards would be a lot quicker.
A bit later on, the initial denser patch has almost gone away. I don't think there's much point in adding the final state of just a bit grey all over – if you haven't seen where this heads by now there's not much point in reading further.
Basically, when we're dealing with particles such as air molecules, and the random distribution of collisions and energy transactions, the heat will spread out until there is no measurable difference between any two small sections of the entire space available to that energy. The heat will move from hotter to cooler, and that will always happen. This is the basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Once we have reached the end-state and the energy-density is even, we will no longer be able to measure any differences in temperature and, if we need a temperature difference to get work done, we're stuffed and no work is possible.
What's really happening, though, when we've reached that point? Those air-molecules are bouncing around just as much as they did before. There is the same distribution of actual kinetic energy across the range whatever volume you care to look at. There is the same pressure, and we know that for a gas, pressure is the sum over a fairly-small (but not infinitesimal) time of the momentum-transfers of the colliding gas molecules. In short, not really a large difference from the way it was at the start with a nice concentrated lump of energy in the middle. If you took a very short time-slice over a small volume (say somewhere around 100ps and a cubic micron with air at STP) you actually wouldn't be able to say what the temperature or pressure actually was. You might be able to make a rough stab at what it was, but you couldn't actually be at all sure.
There is still energy moving around in this gas, but there is no longer any net energy movement when you use a reasonably-human scale of time and space. There's a basic rule in that kinetic energy will tend to spread out so that the space available to it will be evenly filled at the same density, and this can be seen for any situation when the scale is such that it masks the statistical variations over time and space. There's also the observation that potential energy in a system will tend to drop to the lowest level available. Water finds its own level, and atoms naturally exist in their ground states. These are things we see so often that we don't really think about it that deeply, except as here where we're asking that perennial question of "WHY?".
The question is whether you can still get work out of this body of gas at a single uniform temperature. If you stick to human-scale pistons or fan-blades, no way. For human-scale mechanisms, the 2LoT is going to be right every time. The numbers of molecules we're dealing with are so gigantic that statistical variations just won't be useful. If you can get down to scales of mean-free-path in distance and the collision frequency in time, yes there is movement at these scales and so you should be able to harness the obvious movement (kinetic energy) to perform work. If that work comes out as real work, which means that it is either stored as potential energy or goes into kinetic energy, then that volume of gas will be seen to cool, but if it's virtual work (moving something from one place to another) then no cooling will be seen. For this reason Brownian motion, where the dust or Lycopodium powder is bouncing around all over the place, is just displacement work, averages out to zero, and doesn't take energy from the gas. Energy is conserved, but work isn't.
Back to the start again and where the energy comes from in various Free Energy ideas, then. The real answer so far is that it doesn't because they don't actually work. That applies to all the designs I've seen except for Dan Sheehan's work and the Lovell device as replicated by RMS. The actual work output from those so far is minute, though. It's enough to tell me that 2LoT is not exactly correct, and that if we can beat it by a small amount we can maybe push that up to a useful amount of power.
For one that does work, though, there is a large store of energy in the ambient that, if we're clever enough, we could use. If it's a real device, then unless it's harnessing an obvious energy flow in the way that a solar panel harnesses the Sun's rays, then using the energy flows within the ambient will mean that the device will cool down in the course of putting out power. If you can't see an obvious energy flow, and it doesn't cool down, then it probably doesn't work.
The natural energy flows you need to know about to help you decide are:
Sunlight – about 1.4kW/m² at the top of the atmosphere, and around 1kW/m² at ground level.
RF – in the region of 1W/m² legally allowed. If it's a lot more than this then maybe you'd want to move somewhere else.
IR from room-temperature – around 1W/m² at 300K.
I thought I might add my twopennyworth to EG's last post. Have you ever worked on your car out in sunlight with tools laying on the ground and noted that your shiny tools get hot? You will find that Ni plated tools get much hotter than Cr plated tools. This is not because they are less shiny and reflect less sunlight. The temperature reached depends on the ratio of their spectral absorption over the Sun's light spectrum (which is a narrow band centered on 0.9um wavelength) to their spectral emittance over the spectrum of radiated heat at 300K (which is a band centered on 30um wavelength). Clearly Ni has a different ratio to Cr, yet they both look highly reflective to our eyes. And the Ni tools get considerably hotter than the black handle of the screwdriver simply because that black has a ratio nearer to that of Cr. Our eyes cannot assess the IR spectral characteristics. Something that looks white (which could be taken as a poor emitter) can actually be a good emitter at IR wavelengths. Snow, for example, would look black if viewed with IR eyes under IR light. Same goes for titanium dioxide, so if you want your tools to stay cool paint them white or black ;). My point here is that there are subtle characteristics that can affect how things absorb energy from the environment.
Smudge
Quote from: Smudge on 2016.01.07, 15:38:22
My point here is that there are subtle characteristics that can affect how things absorb energy from the environment.
Smudge
Good point.. the equivalence principle needs modifying:
Equivalence principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle
In the physics of general relativity, the equivalence principle is any of several related concepts dealing with the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass, and to Albert Einstein's observation that the gravitational "force" as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is actually the same as the pseudo-force experienced by an observer in a non-inertial (accelerated) frame of reference.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/grav.html
The gravity force has the same form as Coulomb's law for the forces between electric charges, i.e., it is an inverse square law force which depends upon the product of the two interacting sources. This led Einstein to start with the electromagnetic force and gravity as the first attempt to demonstrate the unification of the fundamental forces. It turns out that this was the wrong place to start, and that gravity will be the last of the forces to unify with the other three forces. Electroweak unification (unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces) was demonstrated in 1983, a result which could not be anticipated in the time of Einstein's search. It now appears that the common form of the gravity and electromagnetic forces arises from the fact that each of them involves an exchange particle of zero mass, not because of an inherent symmetry which would make them easy to unify.
Water - Density and Specific Weight http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-density-specific-weight-d_595.html
Pure water has its highest density 1000 kg/m3 (1.940 slugs/ft3) at temperature 4oC (39.2oF).
Richard Feynman explains the feeling of confusion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lytxafTXg6c
Feynman: Take the world from another point of view (1/4)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PsgBtOVzHKI
:)
hhop gen 3 and 4 may be used in space travel to generate electricity and different gas products like oxygen and hydrogen. (Different working fluid means different gas products via electrolysis)
By creating a rotational moment in space a specific gravity field can be formed where different states of matter organise themselves depending on their densities.
Artificial gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
Artificial gravity / Pseudo-gravity is the theoretical increase or decrease of apparent gravity (g-force) by artificial means, particularly in space, but also on Earth. It can be practically achieved by the use of different forces, particularly the centripetal force and linear acceleration.
The creation of artificial gravity is considered desirable for long-term space travel or habitation, for ease of mobility, for in-space fluid management, and to avoid the adverse long-term health effects of weightlessness.
A number of methods for generating artificial gravity have been proposed, as well as an even larger number of science fiction approaches using both real and fictitious forces. Practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans have not yet been built and flown, principally due to the large size of the spacecraft required to produce centripetal acceleration.
Rotation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_wheel_space_station
A rotating spacecraft will produce the feeling of gravity on its inside hull. The rotation drives any object inside the spacecraft toward the hull, thereby giving the appearance of a gravitational pull directed outward. Often referred to as a centrifugal force, the "pull" is actually a manifestation of the objects inside the spacecraft attempting to travel in a straight line due to inertia. The spacecraft's hull provides the centripetal force required for the objects to travel in a circle (if they continued in a straight line, they would leave the spacecraft's confines). Thus, the "gravity" felt by the objects is simply the reaction force of the object on the hull reacting to the centripetal force of the hull on the object, in accordance with Newton's Third Law.
Rotating wheel space station
A rotating wheel space station is a hypothetical wheel-shaped space station that rotates about its axis, thus creating an environment of artificial gravity. Occupants of the station would experience centripetal acceleration according to the following equation,
a = \omega^2 r
where \omega is the angular velocity of the station, r is its radius, and a is linear acceleration at any point along its perimeter.
In principle, the station could be configured to simulate the gravitational acceleration of Earth (9.81 m/s²).
Cassini Solstice Mission
On its journey to Saturn, Cassini carried the European-built Huygens probe. On Jan. 14, 2005, Huygens achieved humankind's first landing on a body in the Outer Solar System when it parachuted through Titan's murky skies. Huygens took measurements of atmospheric composition and wind speeds during its descent, along with an incredible series of images showing telltale patterns of erosion by flowing liquid. The probe came to rest on what appeared to be a floodplain, surrounded by rounded cobbles of water ice.
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/science/index.cfm?SciencepageID=73
Colonization of Titan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_Titan
Saturn's largest moon Titan is one of several candidates for possible future colonization of the outer Solar System.
Surface and atmospheric composition
According to Cassini data from 2008, Titan has hundreds of times more liquid hydrocarbons than all the known oil and natural gas reserves on Earth. These hydrocarbons rain from the sky and collect in vast deposits that form lakes and dunes.[1] "Titan is just covered in carbon-bearing material—it's a giant factory of organic chemicals", said Ralph Lorenz, who leads the study of Titan based on radar data from Cassini. "This vast carbon inventory is an important window into the geology and climate history of Titan." Several hundred lakes and seas have been observed, with several dozen estimated to contain more hydrocarbon liquid than Earth's oil and gas reserves. The dark dunes that run along the equator contain a volume of organics several hundred times larger than Earth's coal reserves.[2]
Titan 'sea' (left) compared at scale to Lake Superior (right)
Radar images obtained on July 21, 2006 appear to show lakes of liquid hydrocarbon (such as methane and ethane) in Titan's northern latitudes. This is the first discovery of currently existing lakes beyond Earth.[3] The lakes range in size from about a kilometer in width to one hundred kilometers across.
On March 13, 2007, Jet Propulsion Laboratory announced that it found strong evidence of seas of methane and ethane in the northern hemisphere. At least one of these is larger than any of the Great Lakes in North America.[4]
Suitability
The American aerospace engineer and author Robert Zubrin identified Saturn as the most important and valuable of the four gas giants in the Solar System, because of its relative proximity, low radiation, and excellent system of moons. He also named Titan as the most important moon on which to establish a base to develop the resources of the Saturn system.[5]
Habitability
Dr. Robert Zubrin has pointed out that Titan possesses an abundance of all the elements necessary to support life, saying "In certain ways, Titan is the most hospitable extraterrestrial world within our solar system for human colonization." [6] The atmosphere contains plentiful nitrogen and methane, and strong evidence indicates that liquid methane exists on the surface. Evidence also indicates the presence of liquid water and ammonia under the surface, which are delivered to the surface by volcanic activity. Water can easily be used to generate breathable oxygen and nitrogen is ideal to add buffer gas partial pressure to breathable air (it forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere).[7] Nitrogen, methane and ammonia can all be used to produce fertilizer for growing food.
Atmosphere
Titan has an atmospheric pressure one and a half times that of Earth. This means that the interior air pressure of landing craft and habitats could be set equal or close to the exterior pressure,[citation needed] reducing the difficulty and complexity of structural engineering for landing craft and habitats compared with low or zero pressure environments such as on the Moon, Mars, or the asteroids. The thick atmosphere would also make radiation a non-issue, unlike on the Moon, Mars, or the asteroids. While Titan's atmosphere does contain trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide, in the event that an astronaut's respiration system is breached, the concentration would not inflict more than a slight headache.[citation needed] A greater danger is that the gases of the atmosphere can generate an explosive mixture with oxygen,[citation needed] which requires special measures in the event that a leak occurs in a habitable module or a spacesuit.
Gravity
Titan has a surface gravity of 0.138 g, slightly less than that of the Moon. Managing long-term effects of low gravity on human health would therefore be a significant issue for long-term occupation of Titan, more so than on Mars. These effects are still an active field of study. They can include symptoms such as loss of bone density, loss of muscle density, and a weakened immune system. Astronauts in Earth orbit have remained in microgravity for up to a year or more at a time. Effective countermeasures for the negative effects of low gravity are well-established, particularly an aggressive regime of daily physical exercise or weighted clothing. The variation in the negative effects of low gravity as a function of different levels of low gravity are not known, since all research in this area is restricted to humans in zero gravity. The same goes for the potential effects of low gravity on fetal and pediatric development. It has been hypothesized that children born and raised in low gravity such as on Titan would not be well adapted for life under the higher gravity of Earth.[8]
Temperature
The temperature on Titan is about 94 K (−179 °C, or −290.2 °F), so insulation and heat generation and management would be significant concerns. Although the air pressure at Titan's surface is about 1.5 times that of Earth at sea level, because of the colder temperature the density of the air is closer to 4.5 times that of Earth sea level. At this density, temperature shifts over time and between one locale and another would be far smaller than comparable types of temperature changes present on Earth. The corresponding narrow range of temperature variation reduces the difficulties in structural engineering.
Relative thickness of the atmosphere combined with extreme cold makes additional troubles for human habitation. Unlike in a vacuum, the high atmospheric density makes thermoinsulation a significant engineering problem.
Flight
The very high ratio of atmospheric density to surface gravity also greatly reduces the wingspan needed for an aircraft to maintain lift, so much so that a human would be able to strap on wings and easily fly through the atmosphere.[6] However, due to Titan's extremely low temperatures, heating of a flight-bound vehicle becomes a key obstacle.[9]
Living on the Moon: Inflatable Habitat Research
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/208744main_fs-2007-11-01-jsc.pdf
Shall we send a hhop habitation complex to the moon ? Practice run for Titan..
Saturn's Titan Reveals Strange Gravity Phenomenon
http://www.dailygalaxy.com/my_weblog/2013/08/saturns-titan-reveals-strange-gravity-phenomenon.html
An analysis of gravity and topography data from Saturn's largest moon, Titan, has revealed that Titan's ice shell is rigid and that relatively small topographic features on the surface are associated with large roots extending into the underlying ocean. Led by planetary scientists Douglas Hemingway and Francis Nimmo at the University of California, Santa Cruz, the study used new data from NASA's Cassini spacecraft. The researchers were surprised to find a negative correlation between the gravity and topography signals on Titan.
"Normally, if you fly over a mountain, you expect to see an increase in gravity due to the extra mass of the mountain. On Titan, when you fly over a mountain the gravity gets lower. That's a very odd observation," said Nimmo, a professor of Earth and planetary sciences at UC Santa Cruz.
To explain that observation, the researchers developed a model in which each bump in the topography on the surface of Titan is offset by a deeper "root" big enough to overwhelm the gravitational effect of the bump on the surface. The root is like an iceberg extending below the ice shell into the ocean underneath it. "Because ice is lower density than water, you get less gravity when you have a big chunk of ice there than when you have water," Nimmo explained.
An iceberg floating in water is in equilibrium, its buoyancy balancing out its weight. In this model of Titan, however, the roots extending below the ice sheet are so much bigger than the bumps on the surface that their buoyancy is pushing them up against the ice sheet.
"It's like a big beach ball under the ice sheet pushing up on it, and the only way to keep it submerged is if the ice sheet is strong," said Hemingway, a doctoral candidate in planetary geophysics at UCSC and lead author of the paper. "If large roots are the reason for the negative correlation, it means that Titan's ice shell must have a very thick rigid layer."
The researchers calculated that, in this model, Titan's ice shell would have to have a rigid layer at least 40 kilometers thick. They also found that hundreds of meters of surface erosion and deposition are needed to account for the observed imbalance between the large roots and small surface topography. The results from their model are similar to estimates obtained by geomorphologists studying the erosion of impact craters and other features on Titan.
These findings have several implications. For example, a thick rigid ice shell makes it very difficult to produce ice volcanoes, which some have proposed to explain certain features seen on the surface.
Unlike Earth's geologically active crust, Titan's ice shell isn't getting recycled by convection or plate tectonics. "It's just sitting there, and weather and erosion are acting on it, moving stuff around and redepositing sediments," Nimmo said. "It may be like the surface of Earth would be if you turned plate tectonics off."
The researchers are not sure what could have given rise to Titan's topographical features with their deep roots. Titan's eccentric orbit around Saturn generates tides that flex the moon's surface and create tidal heating, which could cause variations to develop in the thickness of the ice shell, Hemingway said.
The Daily Galaxy via University of California, Santa Cruz
http://www.russianspaceweb.com/los.html
Way station on the road to the Moon
To establish a permanent foothold on the Moon, earthlings would need more than a single manned spacecraft. As in past conquests of remote and inhospitable lands, it might be necessary to pre-position supplies and accommodations along the way. The most convenient location for a way station on the road to the Moon, would be the lunar orbit. Here, landers returning from the surface of the Moon would link up with transport ships coming from Earth. Crews and cargo could be exchanged and large quantities of propellant could be accumulated for specific "high-power" missions, such as the delivery of heavy lunar base modules on the surface of the Moon. (138)
The concept of a lunar orbital station, or LOS, appeared in early American and Soviet studies of lunar exploration. As early as 1959, Wernher von Braun envisioned the refueling of transport ships in the lunar orbit, in order to facilitate the construction of a lunar base within the project Horizon. In 1962, Sergei Korolev, the founder of the Soviet space program, considered the possibility of establishing long-duration "satellite-stations" in lunar orbit with the goal of supporting deep-space expeditions. (137) The idea was further evaluated around 1963 within the L4 project.
Still, for most of the 20th century, a lunar orbital station had remained a "luxury" item on the list of priorities of contemporary space programs. It was impossible to justify within the limited scope of lunar exploration at the time. However, the first decade of the 21st century saw a renaissance in lunar exploration, with rocket scientists on both sides of the Atlantic dusting off their ideas for establishing a permanent presence on the surface of the Moon. In the post-Soviet Russia, planners at the country's leading manned space flight centers – RKK Energia and Khrunichev enterprise – saw a lunar orbital station as an essential element in the Earth-Moon transport chain.
Khrunichev's LOS concept
On November 14-15, 2007, the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City hosted the 7th scientific conference on manned space flight. Sergei Pugachenko, a representative of KB Salyut, the development arm at Khrunichev enterprise, revealed ambitious long-term plans for exploration of the Moon and Mars.
The lunar infrastructure proposed by Khrunichev included two major elements – a base on the surface of the Moon and a lunar orbital station. Pugachenko's presentation included a slide, which was perhaps the first depiction of a possible configuration of the lunar orbital station, LOS.
The spacecraft clearly traced its roots to the generations of Soviet space stations, such as Salyut, Almaz, Mir's core module and the service module of the International Space Station. Not coincidently, all these vehicles were built at Khrunichev. LOS sported six docking ports, high-power antenna for communications, maneuvering and attitude control engines, solar panels and a robotic arm, similar to the one developed by the European Space Agency, ESA, for the Russian segment of the ISS.
In an accompanying statement to the media, Pugachenko explained that the lunar orbital station would be used for the transfer and storage of cargo and propellants, as well as serve as temporary or emergency quarters for crews and a platform for scientific studies of the Moon, such as remote-sensing and cartography. LOS could also help relay signals between Earth and the lunar surface.
Both the lunar surface base and the lunar orbital station would be delivered into space by a super-heavy version of the Angara rocket with a cargo capacity of 100 tons to the low-Earth orbit. To top it off, Khrunichev drafted a family of giant rockets, with a cargo capacity to low-earth orbit ranging from 45 tons to an incredible 175 tons!
Nautilus-X
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautilus-X
Nautilus-X (Non-Atmospheric Universal Transport Intended for Lengthy United States Exploration) is a multi-mission space exploration vehicle concept developed by engineers Mark Holderman and Edward Henderson of the Technology Applications Assessment Team of NASA.
The concept was first proposed in January, 2011 for long duration (one to twenty-four months) exo-atmospheric space journeys for a six-person crew. In order to limit the effects of microgravity on human health, the spacecraft would be equipped with a centrifuge.
The design was intended to be relatively inexpensive by manned spaceflight standards[2] as it was projected to only cost US$3.7 billion. In addition, it was suggested that it might only need 64 months of work.[3][4]
Stanford torus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_torus
The Stanford torus is a proposed design[1] for a space habitat capable of housing 10,000 to 140,000 permanent residents.[2]
The Stanford torus was proposed during the 1975 NASA Summer Study, conducted at Stanford University, with the purpose of speculating on designs for future space colonies[3] (Gerard O'Neill later proposed his Island One or Bernal sphere as an alternative to the torus[4]). "Stanford torus" refers only to this particular version of the design, as the concept of a ring-shaped rotating space station was previously proposed by Wernher von Braun[5] and Herman Potočnik.[6]
It consists of a torus, or doughnut-shaped ring, that is 1.8 km in diameter (for the proposed 10,000 person habitat described in the 1975 Summer Study) and rotates once per minute to provide between 0.9g and 1.0g of artificial gravity on the inside of the outer ring via centrifugal force.[7]
Sunlight is provided to the interior of the torus by a system of mirrors. The ring is connected to a hub via a number of "spokes", which serve as conduits for people and materials travelling to and from the hub. Since the hub is at the rotational axis of the station, it experiences the least artificial gravity and is the easiest location for spacecraft to dock. Zero-gravity industry is performed in a non-rotating module attached to the hub's axis.[8]
The interior space of the torus itself is used as living space, and is large enough that a "natural" environment can be simulated; the torus appears similar to a long, narrow, straight glacial valley whose ends curve upward and eventually meet overhead to form a complete circle. The population density is similar to a dense suburb, with part of the ring dedicated to agriculture and part to housing.[9]
Construction
The torus would require nearly 10 million tons of mass. Construction would use materials extracted from the Moon and sent to space using a mass driver. A mass catcher at L2 would collect the materials, transporting them to L5 where they could be processed in an industrial facility to construct the torus. Only materials that could not be obtained from the Moon would have to be imported from Earth. Asteroid mining was an alternative source of materials.[10]
Centrifuge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifuge
A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a potentially strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward). The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top.[1]
There are 3 types of centrifuge designed for different applications. Industrial scale centrifuges are commonly used in manufacturing and waste processing to sediment suspended solids, or to separate immiscible liquids. An example is the cream separator found in dairies. Very high speed centrifuges and ultracentrifuges able to provide very high accelerations can separate fine particles down to the nano-scale, and molecules of different masses.
Large centrifuges are used to simulate high gravity or acceleration environments (for example, high-G training for test pilots). Medium-sized centrifuges are used in washing machines and at some swimming pools to wring water out of fabrics.
Gas centrifuges are used for isotope separation, such as to enrich nuclear fuel for fissile isotopes.
Sedimentation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism. In geology, sedimentation is often used as the opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport. In that sense, it includes the termination of transport by saltation or true bedload transport. Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process.
Sedimentation may pertain to objects of various sizes, ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions of dust and pollen particles to cellular suspensions to solutions of single molecules such as proteins and peptides. Even small molecules supply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation.
The term is typically used in geology to describe the deposition of sediment which results in the formation of sedimentary rock, but it is also used in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motion of often-smaller particles and molecules. This process is also used in the biotech industry to separate cells from the culture media.
Newton's Electric Clockwork Solar System
Posted on April 21, 2009 by Wal Thornhill
http://www.holoscience.com/wp/newtons-electric-clockwork-solar-system/
We are told that gravity rules the cosmos. The story of the big bang, the origin of galaxies and stars, and our ultimate fate are founded on this belief. But the March 2009 Astronomy magazine carries the surprising headline, "Is there something we don't know about gravity?" The question should be, "why do we think that physicists know anything about gravity beyond mathematical descriptions of its observed effects?" All that modern physics has done is to obscure the need for serious investigation of an unsolved problem. Even some effects attributed to the action of gravity, like the bending of light, need not have anything to do with gravity. Indeed, we are so far from understanding gravity that we don't know the right questions to ask.
-
However, G is measured at the Earth's surface and used in this equation for the Sun and every other planet. It is simply assumed that G is universal and has the same value for all celestial bodies.
G has the peculiar dimensions of length cubed, divided by mass and by time squared ([L]3/[M][T]2). A. K. T. Assis argues that dimensional constants like G should not appear in the laws of physics. They "must depend on cosmological or microscopic properties of the universe." [1] Garcia-Berro et al state, "Questioning the constancy of fundamental parameters is essentially trying to understand a more fundamental theory behind." [2]
g-force
g-force (with g from gravitational) is a measurement of the type of acceleration that causes weight. Despite the name, it is incorrect to consider g-force a fundamental force, as "g-force" (lower case character) is a type of acceleration that can be measured with an accelerometer. Since g-force accelerations indirectly produce weight, any g-force can be described as a "weight per unit mass" (see the synonym specific weight). When the g-force acceleration is produced by the surface of one object being pushed by the surface of another object, the reaction-force to this push produces an equal and opposite weight for every unit of an object's mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior mechanical stresses. The g-force acceleration (save for certain electromagnetic force influences) is the cause of an object's acceleration in relation to free-fall.[1][2]
The g-force acceleration experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.
Gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the acceleration of a standard gravity. Thus, the standard gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface produces g-force only indirectly, as a result of resistance to it by mechanical forces. These mechanical forces actually produce the g-force acceleration on a mass. For example, the 1 g force on an object sitting on the Earth's surface is caused by mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free-fall. The upward contact-force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earth's surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition (Free fall is the path that the object would follow when falling freely toward the Earth's center). Stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground.
Objects allowed to free-fall in an inertial trajectory under the influence of gravitation-only, feel no g-force acceleration, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the "zero-g" conditions inside a freely falling elevator falling toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.
In the absence of gravitational fields, or in directions at right angles to them, proper and coordinate accelerations are the same, and any coordinate acceleration must be produced by a corresponding g-force acceleration. An example here is a rocket in free space, in which simple changes in velocity are produced by the engines, and produce g-forces on the rocket and passengers.
Acceleration and forces
The term g-force is technically incorrect as it is a measure of acceleration, not force. While acceleration is a vector quantity, g-force accelerations ("g-forces" for short) are often expressed as a scalar, with positive g-forces pointing downward (indicating upward acceleration), and negative g-forces pointing upward. Thus, a g-force is a vector acceleration. It is an acceleration that must be produced by a mechanical force, and cannot be produced by simple gravitation. Objects acted upon only by gravitation, experience (or "feel") no g-force, and are weightless.
G-forces, when multiplied by a mass upon which they act, are associated with a certain type of mechanical force in the correct sense of the term force, and this force produces compressive stress and tensile stress. Such forces result in the operational sensation of weight, but the equation carries a sign change due to the definition of positive weight in the direction downward, so the direction of weight-force is opposite to the direction of g-force acceleration:
Weight = mass ∗ ( - g-force)
The reason for the minus sign is that the actual force (i.e., measured weight) on an object produced by a g-force is in the opposite direction to the sign of the g-force, since in physics, weight is not the force that produces the acceleration, but rather the equal-and-opposite reaction force to it. If the direction upward is taken as positive (the normal cartesian convention) then positive g-force (an acceleration vector that points upward) produces a force/weight on any mass, that acts downward (an example is positive-g acceleration of a rocket launch, producing downward weight). In the same way, a negative-g force is an acceleration vector downward (the negative direction on the y axis), and this acceleration downward produces a weight-force in a direction upward (thus pulling a pilot upward out of the seat, and forcing blood toward the head of a normally oriented pilot).
If a g-force (acceleration) is vertically upward and is applied by the ground (which is accelerating through space-time) or applied by the floor of an elevator to a standing person, most of the body experiences compressive stress which at any height, if multiplied by the area, is the related mechanical force, which is the product of the g-force and the supported mass (the mass above the level of support, including arms hanging down from above that level). At the same time, the arms themselves experience a tensile stress, which at any height, if multiplied by the area, is again the related mechanical force, which is the product of the g-force and the mass hanging below the point of mechanical support. The mechanical resistive force spreads from points of contact with the floor or supporting structure, and gradually decreases toward zero at the unsupported ends (the top in the case of support from below, such as a seat or the floor, the bottom for a hanging part of the body or object). With compressive force counted as negative tensile force, the rate of change of the tensile force in the direction of the g-force, per unit mass (the change between parts of the object such that the slice of the object between them has unit mass), is equal to the g-force plus the non-gravitational external forces on the slice, if any (counted positive in the direction opposite to the g-force).
For a given g-force the stresses are the same, regardless of whether this g-force is caused by mechanical resistance to gravity, or by a coordinate-acceleration (change in velocity) caused by a mechanical force, or by a combination of these. Hence, for people all mechanical forces feels exactly the same whether they cause coordinate acceleration or not. For objects likewise, the question of whether they can withstand the mechanical g-force without damage is the same for any type of g-force. For example, upward acceleration (e.g., increase of speed when going up or decrease of speed when going down) on Earth feels the same as being stationary on a celestial body with a higher surface gravity. Again, one should note that gravitation acting alone does not produce any g-force; g-force is only produced from mechanical pushes and pulls. For a free body (one that is free to move in space) such g-forces only arise as the "inertial" path that is the natural effect of gravitation, or the natural effect of the inertia of mass, is modified. Such modification may only arise from influences other than gravitation.
Apparent weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_weight#Comparison_with_g-force
In physics, apparent weight is a property of objects that corresponds to how heavy an object is. The apparent weight of an object will differ from the weight of an object whenever the force of gravity acting on the object is not balanced by an equal but opposite normal force. By definition, the weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on it. This means that even a "weightless" astronaut in low Earth orbit has almost the same weight as he would have while standing on the ground.
An object that rests on the ground is subject to a normal force exerted by the ground. The normal force acts only on the boundary of the object that is in contact with the ground. This force is transferred into the body; the force of gravity on every part of the body is balanced by stress forces acting on that part. A "weightless" astronaut feels weightless due to the absence of these stress forces. By defining the apparent weight of an object in terms of normal forces, one can capture this effect of the stress forces. A common definition is "the force the body exerts on whatever it rests on."[1]
The apparent weight can also differ from weight when an object is "partially or completely immersed in a fluid", where there is an "upthrust" from the liquid that is working against the force of gravity.[2] Another example is the weight of an object or person riding in an elevator. When the elevator begins rising, the object begins exerting a force in the downward direction. If a scale was used, it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.[3]
The role of apparent weight is also important in fluidization, when dealing with a number of particles, as it is the amount of force that the "upward drag force" needs to overcome in order for the particles to rise and for fluidization to occur.[4]
Fluidization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidization
Fluidization (or fluidisation) is a process similar to liquefaction whereby a granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material.
When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of a bed of solid particles, it will move upwards through the bed via the empty spaces between the particles. At low gas velocities, aerodynamic drag on each particle is also low, and thus the bed remains in a fixed state. Increasing the velocity, the aerodynamic drag forces will begin to counteract the gravitational forces, causing the bed to expand in volume as the particles move away from each other. Further increasing the velocity, it will reach a critical value at which the upward drag forces will exactly equal the downward gravitational forces, causing the particles to become suspended within the fluid. At this critical value, the bed is said to be fluidized and will exhibit fluidic behavior. By further increasing gas velocity, the bulk density of the bed will continue to decrease, and its fluidization becomes more violent, until the particles no longer form a bed and are "conveyed" upwards by the gas flow.
When fluidized, a bed of solid particles will behave as a fluid, like a liquid or gas. Like water in a bucket: the bed will conform to the volume of the chamber, its surface remaining perpendicular to gravity; objects with a lower density than the bed density will float on its surface, bobbing up and down if pushed downwards, while objects with a higher density sink to the bottom of the bed. The fluidic behavior allows the particles to be transported like a fluid, channeled through pipes, not requiring mechanical transport (e.g. conveyor belt).
A simplified every-day-life example of a gas-solid fluidized bed would be a hot-air popcorn popper. The popcorn kernels, all being fairly uniform in size and shape, are suspended in the hot air rising from the bottom chamber. Because of the intense mixing of the particles, akin to that of a boiling liquid, this allows for a uniform temperature of the kernels throughout the chamber, minimizing the amount of burnt popcorn. After popping, the now larger popcorn particles encounter increased aerodynamic drag which pushes them out of the chamber and into a bowl.
The process is also key in the formation of a sand volcano and fluid escape structures in sediments and sedimentary rocks.
Mechanically isolated system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanically_isolated_system
In thermodynamics, a mechanically isolated system is a system that is mechanically constraint to disallow deformations, so that it cannot perform any work on its environment. It also does not permit any mass flows in or out of the system. It may however, exchange heat across the system boundary.
For a simple system, mechanical isolation is equivalent to a state of constant volume and any process which occurs in such a simple system is said to be isochoric. [1]
The opposite of a mechanically isolated system is a mechanically open system,[citation needed] which allows the transfer of mechanical energy. For a simple system, a mechanically open boundary is one that is allowed to move under pressure differences between the two sides of the boundary. At mechanical equilibrium, the pressures on both sides of a mechanically open boundary are equal, but only a mechanically isolating boundary can support pressure differences.
Whirlpool in a bottle DIY Science Experiment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bvibfya_PQ4
Creating whirlpool or tornado in a bottle is super easy.. O0
Cyclone Tube Tornado in a Bottle ~ Incredible Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0LfZFGcGc_I
Easy Water Stacking Sugar Density Experiment ~ DIY Incredible Science
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H78Xd3ToxP4
Evidence found that spinning black holes drag spacetime
http://news.mit.edu/1997/blackholes
Just as Einstein's general theory of relativity predicts
November 6, 1997
CAMBRIDGE, Mass.--Avid Star Trek fans--and physicists--have known that spacetime gets distorted near certain galactic objects, but now they have more precise information about the way that distortion works near spinning black holes. Researchers led by an MIT scientist recently obtained the first observational evidence that massive, rotating black holes in our galaxy drag space and time around with them as they gather matter into their spiral, much as a twister picks up objects in its path.
This phenomenon, known as frame-dragging, was first predicted in 1918 as a natural consequence of Einstein's general theory of relativity, which describes the effects of gravity on space and time. But it had been unproved by experiments or observation until recently, when Italian researchers suggested the effect might be present near spinning neutron stars. The MIT team then applied a similar idea to several black holes in our galaxy.
"If our interpretation is correct, it could be said to prove the presence of frame-dragging near spinning black holes," said Dr. Wei Cui, a research scientist at MIT's Center for Space Research who is lead author on a paper to be presented at a meeting of the High Energy Astrophysics Division of the American Astronomical Society on November 6. His collaborators are research scientists Shuang N. Zhang, of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, and Wan Chen, of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.
Black holes are exceptionally compact objects with a gravitational pull so strong that no light can escape them. Since black holes cannot be seen directly, their existence can only be deduced from observations of the behavior of sister-stars thought to cohabit with black holes. The gravitational pull of the black hole forces the sister star to revolve around it.
The black hole then acquires material from the star by pulling the matter into the orbit of an accretion disk, a ring-like disk of gas that moves around the black hole. As the matter in that disk moves closer and closer to the black hole, the matter heats up and begins to emit X-rays. These X-ray emissions are critical to the measurement of the frame-dragging effect.
Dr. Cui's team took the results of their own recent study that measured how fast black holes spin by using the inferred temperature and location of the matter rotating around them. That study, which came out earlier this year, gave the first published measurement of a black hole's spin. Using that measurement and the mass of the black hole, his team then determined how frame-dragging would affect the material in the accretion disk as it orbits the black hole.
They showed that the matter's orbit in the accretion disk would wobble, much as a child's top wobbles when it slows down. The frequency at which it would wobble, based on their calculations, turned out to be the same frequency as the actual oscillations in intensity of the x-ray emissions previously measured by other researchers. They theorized that this wobble is evidence of frame-dragging, because the matter's orbit can only wobble if the space and time in which it exists are being dragged.
Dr. Cui points out that they cannot claim with absolute certainty that they have proven the presence of frame-dragging. However, he notes that while there are other interpretations that work for two of the five black holes studied, none of them can be satisfactorily applied to all five.
Actually, the general theory of relativity predicts that frame-dragging should occur around any spinning body, even the Earth. But the effect would be much more significant around a body with both tremendous mass and small size, like a black hole, and therefore somewhat easier to detect. Even so, its detection took nearly 80 years from the time it was first predicted.
"Although theorists predicted the frame-dragging effect, they didn't have any observational evidence to prove it before the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer," said Dr. Cui, whose research was funded by NASA.
The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, or RXTE, is a 6,700-pound observatory placed into orbit by NASA in December 1995 to gather information on black holes and neutron stars--objects akin to black holes only less massive. It is named after Bruno B. Rossi, an MIT professor who was a pioneer in the field of X-ray astronomy.
Two of the instruments on board RXTE were designed by Professor Hale Bradt and colleagues at MIT's Center for Space Research. The first, the All Sky Monitor (ASM), sweeps over 80 percent of the sky every 90 minutes, and monitors the intensities and spectra of the brightest X-ray sources. The second is the Experiment Data System (EDS), a powerful computer that crunches numbers before transmitting data back to Earth.
At the meeting in Estes Park, Colo., where Dr. Cui's findings are being presented, the Italian researchers also plan to present their proof of frame-dragging by spinning neutron stars. Most of the data used by both teams was obtained by RXTE.
The very existence of black holes is itself the subject of considerable scientific debate. They are thought to be created when a very large star near the end of its life collapses under its own gravitational pull. Such stars are exceptionally dense because they become as small as 60 kilometers--or 40 miles--in diameter, while still retaining a mass many times that of our Sun. Once a star reaches this stage, its gravity is so powerful that absolutely nothing, not even light, can escape, leaving what appears to us as a black hole in space.
"Of course there are still many unanswered questions about the X-ray emission processes in these black hole systems. But the observations in this case seem to suggest the presence of the frame-dragging effect--that spinning black holes do drag space and time around with them," said Dr. Cui. Something Trekkies have known for years.
NASA Announces Results of Epic Space-Time Experiment
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/04may_epic/
May 4, 2011: Einstein was right again. There is a space-time vortex around Earth, and its shape precisely matches the predictions of Einstein's theory of gravity.
Researchers confirmed these points at a press conference today at NASA headquarters where they announced the long-awaited results of Gravity Probe B (GP-B).
"The space-time around Earth appears to be distorted just as general relativity predicts," says Stanford University physicist Francis Everitt, principal investigator of the Gravity Probe B mission.
Spinning Earth twists space
http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041018/full/news041018-11.html
Laser measurements confirm Einstein's general theory of relativity.
Mark Peplow
One of the last untested predictions of general relativity has been confirmed by the first reasonably accurate measurement of how the rotating Earth warps the fabric of space.
The experiment, carried out for virtually no cost with Earth-based laser range-finders, scoops Gravity Probe B, the US$700 million orbiting craft launched in April to test exactly the same effect. However, the Gravity Probe B team has questioned whether the result is really quite as accurate as it seems.
The space warp is a consequence of Einstein's general theory of relativity, which describes gravity as a curvature in space produced by objects sitting in it. It also implies that a rotating mass will drag space around it like a spinning top placed in treacle - an effect known as the Lense-Thirring effect, or more commonly as 'frame-dragging'. The effect becomes important in understanding extreme situations like spinning quasars, and the rotation of jets of gas around black holes.
The effect was first predicted by Austrian physicists Joseph Lense and Hans Thirring in 1918, but until now scientists haven't had sufficiently accurate instruments to measure its tiny perturbations in the fabric of our Universe.
Ignazio Ciufolini at the University of Lecce, Italy and Erricos Pavlis at the University of Maryland in Baltimore charted the path of two NASA satellites, LAGEOS and LAGEOS 2, over 11 years with laser range-finders with the precision of a few millimetres. The effect dragged the satellite's orbits out of position by about 2 metres each year, the researchers report in this week's Nature1.
The researchers say that their result is 99% of the value predicted by relativity, with an error of up to 10%. "Their result is the first reasonably accurate measurement of frame-dragging," comments Neil Ashby, a physicist from the University of Colorado, Boulder.
Doubts
But some scientists remain unconvinced that the measurements are as accurate as the Italian researchers claim. "One of the difficulties is extracting the frame-dragging effect from the huge gravitational effect of the Earth," says Clifford Will, a physicist at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, who chairs NASA's Science Advisory Committee for Gravity Probe B.
If the Earth were perfectly symmetrical, frame-dragging would be easy to measure. But the lumpy Earth generates an uneven gravity field, Will points out, which moves the satellites about far more than frame-dragging.
To tease the two effects apart, Ciufolini and Pavlis used a map of the Earth's gravity field provided by a NASA mission called GRACE, launched in March 2002. This relies on two satellites orbiting Earth about 220 kilometres apart, measuring the tiny changes in that distance as they pass through different parts of the Earth's gravity field. Ciufolini's previous attempt2 at measuring frame-dragging was less than 20% accurate, because it did not have the benefit of the GRACE gravity model.
"The laser-ranging method can deliver the accuracy, but it is still uncertain if the GRACE gravity models are good enough," says John Ries, a physicist at the University of Texas, Austin. Will adds that the Gravity Probe B team is also sceptical, and thinks that Ciufolini may have drastically underestimated his errors.
Scooped?
Either way, the Gravity Probe B experiment is expected to deliver a measurement of frame-dragging with 1% accuracy very soon. "I admire the people that have worked for 40 years on this experiment. It's certainly worthwhile," says Ciufolini.
Physicists did not expect either of these experiments to overturn relativity, but insist that confirmation was still essential. "There could be an effect," says Will. "It hasn't been measured, so we have to measure it." But he concedes: "It gets tricky when it costs so much."
The last major prediction of general relativity requiring confirmation is the existence of gravity waves. The LIGO experiment, run by the California Institute of Technology and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, is already searching for these on Earth, while NASA's LISA probes are expected to launch in 2010.
Gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity
Gravity or gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which all things with energy are brought towards (or 'gravitate' towards) one another, including stars, planets, galaxies and even light and sub-atomic particles. Gravity is responsible for the complexity in the universe, by creating spheres of hydrogen — where hydrogen fuses under pressure to form stars — and grouping them into galaxies. Without gravity, the universe would be an uncomplicated one, existing without thermal energy and composed only of equally spaced particles[citation needed]. On Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the tides. Gravity has an infinite range, although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects.
Gravity is most accurately described by the general theory of relativity (proposed by Albert Einstein in 1915) which describes gravity, not as a force, but as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass/energy; and resulting in time dilation, where time lapses more slowly in strong gravitation. However, for most applications, gravity is well approximated by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which postulates that gravity is a force where two bodies of mass are directly drawn (or 'attracted') to each other according to a mathematical relationship, where the attractive force is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This is considered to occur over an infinite range, such that all bodies (with mass) in the universe are drawn to each other no matter how far they are apart.
Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of nature. The gravitational attraction is approximately 10−38 times the strength of the strong force (i.e. gravity is 38 orders of magnitude weaker), 10−36 times the strength of the electromagnetic force, and 10−29 times the strength of the weak force. As a consequence, gravity has a negligible influence on the behavior of sub-atomic particles, and plays no role in determining the internal properties of everyday matter (but see quantum gravity). On the other hand, gravity is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape, and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. It is responsible for various phenomena observed on Earth and throughout the universe; for example, it causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun, the Moon to orbit the Earth, the formation of tides, and the formation and evolution of galaxies, stars and the Solar System.
In pursuit of a theory of everything, the merging of general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity has become an area of research.
History of gravitational theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_gravitational_theory
Scientific revolution
Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In his famous (though possibly apocryphal[1]) experiment dropping balls from the Tower of Pisa, and later with careful measurements of balls rolling down inclines, Galileo showed that gravity accelerates all objects at the same rate. This was a major departure from Aristotle's belief that heavier objects accelerate faster.[2] Galileo postulated air resistance as the reason that lighter objects may fall more slowly in an atmosphere. Galileo's work set the stage for the formulation of Newton's theory of gravity.
Newton's theory of gravitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation
In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. In his own words, "I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must [be] reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centers about which they revolve: and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in her Orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty nearly."[3] The equation is the following:
F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}\
Where F is the force, m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects interacting, r is the distance between the centers of the masses and G is the gravitational constant.
Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the general position of the planet, and Le Verrier's calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Galle to the discovery of Neptune.
A discrepancy in Mercury's orbit pointed out flaws in Newton's theory. By the end of the 19th century, it was known that its orbit showed slight perturbations that could not be accounted for entirely under Newton's theory, but all searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) had been fruitless. The issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einstein's new theory of general relativity, which accounted for the small discrepancy in Mercury's orbit.
Although Newton's theory has been superseded by the Einstein's general relativity, most modern non-relativistic gravitational calculations are still made using the Newton's theory because it is simpler to work with and it gives sufficiently accurate results for most applications involving sufficiently small masses, speeds and energies.
Equivalence principle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle
The equivalence principle, explored by a succession of researchers including Galileo, Loránd Eötvös, and Einstein, expresses the idea that all objects fall in the same way. The simplest way to test the weak equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum and see whether they hit the ground at the same time. Such experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the same rate when other forces (such as air resistance and electromagnetic effects) are negligible. More sophisticated tests use a torsion balance of a type invented by Eötvös. Satellite experiments, for example STEP, are planned for more accurate experiments in space.[4]
Formulations of the equivalence principle include:
The weak equivalence principle: The trajectory of a point mass in a gravitational field depends only on its initial position and velocity, and is independent of its composition.[5]
The Einsteinian equivalence principle: The outcome of any local non-gravitational experiment in a freely falling laboratory is independent of the velocity of the laboratory and its location in spacetime.[6]
The strong equivalence principle requiring both of the above.
General relativity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_general_relativity
In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion and describes free-falling inertial objects as being accelerated relative to non-inertial observers on the ground.[7][8] In Newtonian physics, however, no such acceleration can occur unless at least one of the objects is being operated on by a force.
Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight paths in curved spacetime. These straight paths are called geodesics. Like Newton's first law of motion, Einstein's theory states that if a force is applied on an object, it would deviate from a geodesic. For instance, we are no longer following geodesics while standing because the mechanical resistance of the Earth exerts an upward force on us, and we are non-inertial on the ground as a result. This explains why moving along the geodesics in spacetime is considered inertial.
Einstein discovered the field equations of general relativity, which relate the presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime and are named after him. The Einstein field equations are a set of 10 simultaneous, non-linear, differential equations. The solutions of the field equations are the components of the metric tensor of spacetime. A metric tensor describes a geometry of spacetime. The geodesic paths for a spacetime are calculated from the metric tensor.
Solutions
Notable solutions of the Einstein field equations include:
The Schwarzschild solution, which describes spacetime surrounding a spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged massive object. For compact enough objects, this solution generated a black hole with a central singularity. For radial distances from the center which are much greater than the Schwarzschild radius, the accelerations predicted by the Schwarzschild solution are practically identical to those predicted by Newton's theory of gravity.
The Reissner-Nordström solution, in which the central object has an electrical charge. For charges with a geometrized length which are less than the geometrized length of the mass of the object, this solution produces black holes with two event horizons.
The Kerr solution for rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple event horizons.
The Kerr-Newman solution for charged, rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple event horizons.
The cosmological Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker solution, which predicts the expansion of the universe.
Tests
The tests of general relativity included the following:[9]
General relativity accounts for the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury.[10]
The prediction that time runs slower at lower potentials (gravitational time dilation) has been confirmed by the Pound–Rebka experiment (1959), the Hafele–Keating experiment, and the GPS.
The prediction of the deflection of light was first confirmed by Arthur Stanley Eddington from his observations during the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919.[11][12] Eddington measured starlight deflections twice those predicted by Newtonian corpuscular theory, in accordance with the predictions of general relativity. However, his interpretation of the results was later disputed.[13]
More recent tests using radio interferometric measurements of quasars passing behind the Sun have more accurately and consistently confirmed the deflection of light to the degree predicted by general relativity.[14]
See also gravitational lens.
The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was first identified by Irwin I. Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals.
Gravitational radiation has been indirectly confirmed through studies of binary pulsars.
Alexander Friedmann in 1922 found that Einstein equations have non-stationary solutions (even in the presence of the cosmological constant). In 1927 Georges Lemaître showed that static solutions of the Einstein equations, which are possible in the presence of the cosmological constant, are unstable, and therefore the static universe envisioned by Einstein could not exist. Later, in 1931, Einstein himself agreed with the results of Friedmann and Lemaître. Thus general relativity predicted that the Universe had to be non-static—it had to either expand or contract. The expansion of the universe discovered by Edwin Hubble in 1929 confirmed this prediction.[15]
The theory's prediction of frame dragging was consistent with the recent Gravity Probe B results.[16]
General relativity predicts that light should lose its energy when traveling away from massive bodies through gravitational redshift. This was verified on earth and in the solar system around 1960.
Gravity and quantum mechanics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity
In the decades after the discovery of general relativity, it was realized that general relativity is incompatible with quantum mechanics.[17] It is possible to describe gravity in the framework of quantum field theory like the other fundamental forces, such that the attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual photons.[18][19] This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length,[17] where a more complete theory of quantum gravity (or a new approach to quantum mechanics) is required.
Specifics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth
Earth's gravity
Every planetary body (including the Earth) is surrounded by its own gravitational field, which can be conceptualized with Newtonian physics as exerting an attractive force on all objects. Assuming a spherically symmetrical planet, the strength of this field at any given point above the surface is proportional to the planetary body's mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the center of the body.
The strength of the gravitational field is numerically equal to the acceleration of objects under its influence.[citation needed] The rate of acceleration of falling objects near the Earth's surface varies very slightly depending on latitude, surface features such as mountains and ridges, and perhaps unusually high or low sub-surface densities.[20] For purposes of weights and measures, a standard gravity value is defined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, under the International System of Units (SI).
That value, denoted g, is g = 9.80665 m/s2 (32.1740 ft/s2).[21][22]
The standard value of 9.80665 m/s2 is the one originally adopted by the International Committee on Weights and Measures in 1901 for 45° latitude, even though it has been shown to be too high by about five parts in ten thousand.[23] This value has persisted in meteorology and in some standard atmospheres as the value for 45° latitude even though it applies more precisely to latitude of 45°32'33".[24]
Assuming the standardized value for g and ignoring air resistance, this means that an object falling freely near the Earth's surface increases its velocity by 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s or 22 mph) for each second of its descent. Thus, an object starting from rest will attain a velocity of 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) after one second, approximately 19.62 m/s (64.4 ft/s) after two seconds, and so on, adding 9.80665 m/s (32.1740 ft/s) to each resulting velocity. Also, again ignoring air resistance, any and all objects, when dropped from the same height, will hit the ground at the same time.
If an object with comparable mass to that of the Earth were to fall towards it, then the corresponding acceleration of the Earth would be observable.
According to Newton's 3rd Law, the Earth itself experiences a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that which it exerts on a falling object. This means that the Earth also accelerates towards the object until they collide. Because the mass of the Earth is huge, however, the acceleration imparted to the Earth by this opposite force is negligible in comparison to the object's. If the object doesn't bounce after it has collided with the Earth, each of them then exerts a repulsive contact force on the other which effectively balances the attractive force of gravity and prevents further acceleration.
The force of gravity on Earth is the resultant (vector sum) of two forces:[dubious – discuss][citation needed] (a) The gravitational attraction in accordance with Newton's universal law of gravitation, and (b) the centrifugal force[dubious – discuss][citation needed], which results from the choice of an earthbound, rotating frame of reference. At the equator, the force of gravity is the weakest due to the centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation. The force of gravity varies with latitude and increases from about 9.780 m/s2 at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s2 at the poles.
Equations for a falling body near the surface of the Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equations_for_a_falling_body
Under an assumption of constant gravitational attraction, Newton's law of universal gravitation simplifies to F = mg, where m is the mass of the body and g is a constant vector with an average magnitude of 9.81 m/s2 on Earth. This resulting force is the object's weight. The acceleration due to gravity is equal to this g. An initially stationary object which is allowed to fall freely under gravity drops a distance which is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. The image on the right, spanning half a second, was captured with a stroboscopic flash at 20 flashes per second. During the first 1⁄20 of a second the ball drops one unit of distance (here, a unit is about 12 mm); by 2⁄20 it has dropped at total of 4 units; by 3⁄20, 9 units and so on.
Under the same constant gravity assumptions, the potential energy, Ep, of a body at height h is given by Ep = mgh (or Ep = Wh, with W meaning weight). This expression is valid only over small distances h from the surface of the Earth. Similarly, the expression h = \tfrac{v^2}{2g} for the maximum height reached by a vertically projected body with initial velocity v is useful for small heights and small initial velocities only.
Gravity and astronomy
The application of Newton's law of gravity has enabled the acquisition of much of the detailed information we have about the planets in the Solar System, the mass of the Sun, and details of quasars; even the existence of dark matter is inferred using Newton's law of gravity. Although we have not traveled to all the planets nor to the Sun, we know their masses. These masses are obtained by applying the laws of gravity to the measured characteristics of the orbit. In space an object maintains its orbit because of the force of gravity acting upon it. Planets orbit stars, stars orbit galactic centers, galaxies orbit a center of mass in clusters, and clusters orbit in superclusters. The force of gravity exerted on one object by another is directly proportional to the product of those objects' masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational radiation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_wave
In general relativity, gravitational radiation is generated in situations where the curvature of spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects. The gravitational radiation emitted by the Solar System is far too small to measure. However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as PSR B1913+16. It is believed that neutron star mergers and black hole formation may create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation. Gravitational radiation observatories such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) have been created to study the problem. No confirmed detections have been made of this hypothetical radiation.
Speed of gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_gravity
In December 2012, a research team in China announced that it had produced measurements of the phase lag of Earth tides during full and new moons which seem to prove that the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light.[26] This means that if the Sun suddenly disappeared, the Earth would keep orbiting it normally for 8 minutes, which is the time light takes to travel that distance. The team's findings were released in the Chinese Science Bulletin in February 2013.[27]
Anomalies and discrepancies
There are some observations that are not adequately accounted for, which may point to the need for better theories of gravity or perhaps be explained in other ways.
Extra-fast stars: Stars in galaxies follow a distribution of velocities where stars on the outskirts are moving faster than they should according to the observed distributions of normal matter. Galaxies within galaxy clusters show a similar pattern. Dark matter, which would interact gravitationally but not electromagnetically, would account for the discrepancy. Various modifications to Newtonian dynamics have also been proposed.
Flyby anomaly: Various spacecraft have experienced greater acceleration than expected during gravity assist maneuvers.
Accelerating expansion: The metric expansion of space seems to be speeding up. Dark energy has been proposed to explain this. A recent alternative explanation is that the geometry of space is not homogeneous (due to clusters of galaxies) and that when the data are reinterpreted to take this into account, the expansion is not speeding up after all,[28] however this conclusion is disputed.[29]
Anomalous increase of the astronomical unit: Recent measurements indicate that planetary orbits are widening faster than if this were solely through the Sun losing mass by radiating energy.
Extra energetic photons: Photons travelling through galaxy clusters should gain energy and then lose it again on the way out. The accelerating expansion of the universe should stop the photons returning all the energy, but even taking this into account photons from the cosmic microwave background radiation gain twice as much energy as expected. This may indicate that gravity falls off faster than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.[30]
Extra massive hydrogen clouds: The spectral lines of the Lyman-alpha forest suggest that hydrogen clouds are more clumped together at certain scales than expected and, like dark flow, may indicate that gravity falls off slower than inverse-squared at certain distance scales.[30]
Power: Proposed extra dimensions could explain why the gravity force is so weak.[31]
Alternative theories
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternatives_to_general_relativity
There are two 'types' of gravity forces..
Newton's law of universal gravitation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_law_of_universal_gravitation
Newton's law of universal gravitation states that any two bodies in the Universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.[note 1] This is a general physical law derived from empirical observations by what Isaac Newton called induction.[1] It is a part of classical mechanics and was formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("the Principia"), first published on 5 July 1687. (When Newton's book was presented in 1686 to the Royal Society, Robert Hooke made a claim that Newton had obtained the inverse square law from him; see the History section below.)
In modern language, the law states: Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.[2] The first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798.[3] It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and 71 years after his death.
Newton's law of gravitation resembles Coulomb's law of electrical forces, which is used to calculate the magnitude of electrical force arising between two charged bodies. Both are inverse-square laws, where force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Coulomb's law has the product of two charges in place of the product of the masses, and the electrostatic constant in place of the gravitational constant.
Newton's law has since been superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity, but it continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the effects of gravity in most applications. Relativity is required only when there is a need for extreme precision, or when dealing with very strong gravitational fields, such as those found near extremely massive and dense objects, or at very close distances (such as Mercury's orbit around the sun).
Standard gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity
The standard acceleration due to gravity (or standard acceleration of free fall), sometimes abbreviated as standard gravity, usually denoted by ɡ0 or ɡn, is the nominal gravitational acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the Earth. It is defined by standard as 9.80665 m/s2, which is exactly 35.30394 km/(h·s) (about 32.174 ft/s2, or 21.937 mph/s). This value was established by the 3rd CGPM (1901, CR 70) and used to define the standard weight of an object as the product of its mass and this nominal acceleration.[1][2] The acceleration of a body near the surface of the Earth is due to the combined effects of gravity and centrifugal acceleration from rotation of the Earth (but which is small enough to be neglected for most purposes); the total (the apparent gravity) is about 0.5 percent greater at the poles than at the equator.
Although the symbol ɡ is sometimes used for standard gravity, ɡ (without a suffix) can also mean the local acceleration due to local gravity and centrifugal acceleration, which varies depending on one's position on Earth (see Earth's gravity). The symbol ɡ should not be confused with G, the gravitational constant, or g, the symbol for gram. The ɡ is also used as a unit for any form of acceleration, with the value defined as above; see g-force.
The value of ɡ0 defined above is a nominal midrange value on Earth, originally based on the acceleration of a body in free fall at sea level at a geodetic latitude of 45°. Although the actual acceleration of free fall on Earth varies according to location, the above standard figure is always used for metrological purposes. In particular, it gives the conversion factor between newton and kilogram-force, two units of force.
Relative density
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_density
Relative density, or specific gravity,[1][2] is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity usually means relative density with respect to water. The term "relative density" is often preferred in modern scientific usage. It is defined as a ratio of density of particular substance with that of water.
If a substance's relative density is less than one then it is less dense than the reference; if greater than 1 then it is denser than the reference. If the relative density is exactly 1 then the densities are equal; that is, equal volumes of the two substances have the same mass. If the reference material is water then a substance with a relative density (or specific gravity) less than 1 will float in water. For example, an ice cube, with a relative density of about 0.91, will float. A substance with a relative density greater than 1 will sink.
Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm (101.325 kPa). Where it is not, it is more usual to specify the density directly. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British brewing practice the specific gravity as specified above is multiplied by 1000.[3] Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must, etc.) and acids.
Hydrostatic weighing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_weighing
Hydrostatic weighing, also referred to as "underwater weighing," "hydrostatic body composition analysis," and "hydrodensitometry," is a technique for measuring the mass per unit volume of a living person's body. It is a direct application of Archimedes' principle, that an object displaces its own volume of water.
Method
The procedure is based on Archimedes' principle, which states that: The buoyant force which water exerts on an immersed object is equal to the weight of water that the object displaces.
Hydrometer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument that measures the specific gravity (relative density) of liquids—the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.
A hydrometer is usually made of glass, and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to test is poured into a tall container, often a graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer correlates to specific gravity. Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the person using it can read specific gravity . A variety of scales exist for different contexts.
Hydrometers are calibrated for different uses, such as a lactometer for measuring the density (creaminess) of milk, a saccharometer for measuring the density of sugar in a liquid, or an alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of alcohol in spirits.
Time
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time
Time is a measure in which events can be ordered from the past through the present into the future, and also the measure of durations of events and the intervals between them.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Time is often referred to as the fourth dimension, along with the three spatial dimensions.[8]
Time has long been a major subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science, but defining it in a manner applicable to all fields without circularity has consistently eluded scholars.[2][6][7][9][10][11] Nevertheless, diverse fields such as business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some notion of time into their respective measuring systems.[12][13][14] Some simple definitions of time include "time is what clocks measure",[6][15] which is a problematically vague and self-referential definition that utilizes the device used to measure the subject as the definition of the subject, and "time is what keeps everything from happening at once", which is without substantive meaning in the absence of the definition of simultaneity in the context of the limitations of human sensation, observation of events, and the perception of such events.[16][17][18][19]
Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe—a dimension independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[20][21] The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container" that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[15] and Immanuel Kant,[22][23] holds that time is neither an event nor a thing, and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.
Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and International System of Quantities. Time is used to define other quantities—such as velocity—so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition.[24] An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy.
Furthermore, it may be that there is a subjective component to time, but whether or not time itself is "felt", as a sensation, or is a judgment, is a matter of debate.[2][6][7][25][26]
Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in navigation and astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day and in human life spans.
Three-dimensional space (mathematics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space_%28mathematics%29
Three-dimensional space (also: tri-dimensional space) is a geometric three-parameter model of the physical universe (without considering time) in which all known matter exists. These three dimensions can be labeled by a combination of three chosen from the terms length, width, height, depth, and breadth. Any three directions can be chosen, provided that they do not all lie in the same plane.
In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n = 3, the set of all such locations is called three-dimensional Euclidean space. This space is only one example of a great variety of spaces in three dimensions called 3-manifolds.
Coordinate system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system
In geometry, a coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point or other geometric element on a manifold such as Euclidean space.[1][2] The order of the coordinates is significant and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in "the x-coordinate". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry.[3]
hhop gen 4 + Lord Kelvin's water dropper
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg52861#msg52861
Kelvin water dropper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper
The Kelvin water dropper, invented by British scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1867,[1] is a type of electrostatic generator. Kelvin referred to the device as his water-dropping condenser. The apparatus is variously called the Kelvin hydroelectric generator, the Kelvin electrostatic generator, or Lord Kelvin's thunderstorm. The device uses falling water to generate voltage differences by electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems. Its only use has been in physics education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.
shhopgen
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg38365#msg38365
Acceleration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration#Tangential_and_centripetal_acceleration
Acceleration, in physics, is the rate of change of velocity of an object. An object's acceleration is the net result of any and all forces acting on the object, as described by Newton's Second Law.[1] The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m/s2). Accelerations are vector quantities (they have magnitude and direction) and add according to the parallelogram law.[2][3] As a vector, the calculated net force is equal to the product of the object's mass (a scalar quantity) and the acceleration.
For example, when a car starts from a standstill (zero relative velocity) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the car turns there is an acceleration toward the new direction. For this example, we can call the accelerating of the car forward a "linear acceleration", which passengers in the car might experience as force pushing them back into their seats. When changing directions, we might call this "non-linear acceleration", which passengers might experience as a sideways force. If the speed of the car decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the direction of the vehicle, sometimes called deceleration.[4] Passengers may experience deceleration as a force lifting them away from their seats. Mathematically, there is no separate formula for deceleration, as both are changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (linear, non-linear, deceleration) might be felt by passengers until their velocity (speed and direction) match that of the car.
Relation to relativity
Special relativity
The special theory of relativity describes the behavior of objects traveling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in a vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.
As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.
General relativity
Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is totally impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the principle of equivalence, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.[10]
Fiction ?
http://glennclovis.deviantart.com/art/Spec-Sheet-Stanford-Torus-335141092
hhop gen 5 is intended to enable Everyman to explore space together, forever.
In ISS orbit (space) a hhop gen 5 station could be built, simulating 1G force.
hhop gen 3 and 4 convert gravitational force potential into electrical energy surplus (COP>1), hhop gen 3 also electrolytically process's fluids.
hhop gen 5 is spacial rotation moment based and can be layered upon mass based gravitational models (equivalence principal), this creates a gravitational force gradient range of 0G (COG) to 1G (Boundary)
hhop gen 5
Energy density
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density
Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume or mass, though the latter is more accurately termed specific energy. Often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that chemically inaccessible energy such as rest mass energy is ignored.[1] In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts, however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress–energy tensor and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with the pressures described in the next paragraph.
Energy per unit volume has the same physical units as pressure, and in many circumstances is a synonym: for example, the energy density of a magnetic field may be expressed as (and behaves as) a physical pressure, and the energy required to compress a compressed gas a little more may be determined by multiplying the difference between the gas pressure and the external pressure by the change in volume. In short, pressure is a measure of the enthalpy per unit volume of a system. A pressure gradient has a potential to perform work on the surroundings by converting enthalpy until equilibrium is reached.
Specific energy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_energy
Specific energy is energy per unit mass. (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means energy per unit volume.) It is used to quantify, for example, stored heat or other thermodynamic properties of substances such as specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, specific Gibbs free energy, and specific Helmholtz free energy. It may also be used for the kinetic energy or potential energy of a body. Specific energy is an intensive property, whereas energy and mass are extensive properties.
Intensive and extensive properties
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_and_extensive_properties
Physical properties of materials and systems can often be categorized as being either intensive or extensive quantities, according to how the property changes when the size (or extent) of the system changes. According to IUPAC, an intensive property is one whose magnitude is independent of the size of the system. An extensive property is one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.[1]
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T, refractive index, n, density, ρ, and hardness of an object, η (IUPAC symbols[1] are used throughout this article). When a diamond is cut, the pieces maintain their intrinsic hardness (until their size reaches a few atoms thick), so hardness is independent of the size of the system.
By contrast, an extensive property is additive for subsystems.[2] This means the system could be divided into any number of subsystems, and the extensive property measured for each subsystem; the value of the property for the system would be the sum of the property for each subsystem. For example, both the mass, m, and the volume, V, of a diamond are directly proportional to the amount that is left after cutting it from the raw mineral. Mass and volume are extensive properties, but hardness is intensive.
The ratio of two extensive properties of the same object or system is an intensive property. For example, the ratio of an object's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is density, which is an intensive property.[3]
The terms intensive and extensive quantities were introduced by Richard C. Tolman in 1917.[4]
hhop gen 3
End stops control valve timing in hhop gen 3.
hhop gen 4 has a single valve in the bottom face of the piston, controlled by end stops.
When the valve is closed the liquid inside the hollow piston reservoir is seen simply as a system weight and does work on the hydraulic system below it. (gravitational potential vector field prime mover energy)
The hydraulic chamber below it is enclosed from the environment and therefore has only the tiny bore outlet pipe to reach pressure equalisation (scalar field).
The piston reaches end of travel at the bottom of the system reservoir and the weight opens the valve.
The two separate water chamber's (two scalar fields not in contact) are now one scalar field with a narrow hydraulic bridge.
The piston is buoyant and ascends gaining kinetic energy and momentum as it does so. When it hits top stop the valve is closed and the system sees two scalar fields once again.. and the piston gets heavy O0
Raised weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_accumulator
A raised weight accumulator consists of a vertical cylinder containing fluid connected to the hydraulic line. The cylinder is closed by a piston on which a series of weights are placed that exert a downward force on the piston and thereby energizes the fluid in the cylinder. In contrast to compressed gas and spring accumulators, this type delivers a nearly constant pressure, regardless of the volume of fluid in the cylinder, until it is empty. (The pressure will decline somewhat as the cylinder is emptied due to the decline in weight of the remaining fluid.)
hhop gen 4
hhop gen 4 Specific Gravity Field switch O0
A demonstration around a year ago of a snapvalve governor ejector/injector hhop gen 2 cell.
Substitution of the snapvalve governor with a standard PRV (pressure relief valve) will cause the cell pressure to hunt around cracking pressure, and pressurise the electrolyte liquid working fluid.
A slow controlled continuous bleed, as opposed to the rapid delayed action of the snapvalve.
The snapvalve allows a volume of liquid to be pump displaced by the increasing gas pressure, before the gas is ejected/injected rapidly and the valve closes.
hho is moved at high velocity from high to low pressure, without ignition at 6 bar (90 psi ish) 8)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5CvlEwxFhg&feature=youtu.be
skip to 07:15 for valve operation event :)
hhop gen 4 updated drawing showing the boundary plane o-ring seal and the two working fluids, gas and liquid.
Curing Cancer with Carrots
http://curingcancerwithcarrots.com/
Ann Cameron was diagnosed with stage 4 colon cancer.
After using traditional treatment, she was diagnosed with a secondaries in her lungs.
She used carrot juice as a remedy and has been cancer free since 2013.
https://soundcloud.com/abc-sunshine-coast/author-ann-cameron-on-carrots-and-cancer
Author Ann Cameron cured her stage 4 cancer with carrot juice, nothing else.
http://www.chrisbeatcancer.com/ann-cameron-cured-her-cancer-with-carrot-juice/
Cold Pressed Juicing Technology
http://www.thearange.co.uk/products/juica-cold-press-juicer/
Cold pressed juicing technology operates via a slow, compressing method to produce high quality juice from each fruit and vegetable. The pressing screw crushes, then compresses and squeezes out of the juice, similar to hand pressed juice.
There are no fast-spinning blades that shred and pulverize the fruits and vegetables to produce juice. The friction from high spinning centrifugal blades create heat and break open the cell walls of the produce exposing to oxygen and reducing nutrients. This causes oxidation to occur rapidly which is why often fruit and vegetable juice from these types of units is a totally different colour and texture. The juice also separates very quickly from these centrifugal units whereas the juice from Juica has very little separation. The cold press method generates more vitamin-dense, richer-coloured juice than a centrifugal juicer.
Carrot's sound like a good idea O0
The hhop gen 2 hybrid fit's the bill as a low power water pump, fuel producer and food processor.
Now we need a food processor attachment on the water pump outlet (large diameter hydraulic piston press), and to think about our radius / height / volume / pressure relationships for both fluids. (gas / air and liquid / water)
Should be fun! ;D
http://www.ukjuicers.com/juicers/fruit-and-vegetable-juicers/masticating-juicers/cold-press-juicers
Do You Know the Difference Between a Centrifugal and a Cold Press Juicer?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-90B46sNfz0
The A range cold press juicer was on sale at Argos, picked one up this evening and the results are good!
There is still a lot of liquid left in the pulp so not very efficient, which makes it a perfect opportunity to apply a stainless high pressure press and see how much extra juice we can extract.
The more juice you can extract the lower your ongoing raw material costs will be.. O0
The central spindle is a metal hex lock so hopefully will not suffer the same problems as it's rivals (according to some reviews), and it was very quiet, quick.. easy to clean (minimal parts).
Leftover dry pulp for the compost bin.. for £100 you get the motor, screw press and separator.. can we do the hhop press for less (£ and electricity).. and produce more juice ?
Seems like a fair challenge.. I wonder what working psi we can take the hhopress up to ?
Don't forget your safety burst discs!
Next stop, Lunar City: 3D-printed space pods to form permanent 'moon village'
https://www.rt.com/news/333842-moon-village-domes-space/
Looks like a hhop house on the Moon to me!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E-lq2ErdlXY
On Earth there is no need for the soil berm and so we can have a greenhouse garden on the surface, house underground.. like a hobbit.. 8)
hhop gen 4 at the core providing basic backup electricity, hhop gen 3 managing fluids pressure to the hydraulic and liquid / gas processing system.
Mass based Gravity within a Specific Gravity Field is the energy source, and on the Moon will be less Force than on Earth, but constant..
Density and its uses
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/pre/pre-2.html
Dolphin and diver engage in a graceful dance while supported by the weight of the water they displace.
The density of an object is one of its most important and easily-measured physical properties. Densities are widely used to identify pure substances and to characterize and estimate the composition of many kinds of mixtures.
The purpose of this lesson is to show how densities are defined, measured, and utilized, and to make sure you understand the closely-related concepts of buoyancy and specific gravity, and the roles they play in our lives and the environment.
Density Concept Map
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/pre/pre-2.html
Archimedes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz/;[1] Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης; c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer.[2] Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time,[3][4] Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems, including the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, and the area under a parabola.[5]
Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi, defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name, and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion.
Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder, which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb, representing his mathematical discoveries.
Unlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until c. 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance,[6] while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results.[7]
Ballast tank
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballast_tank
A ballast tank is a compartment within a boat, ship or other floating structure that holds water, which is used as ballast to provide stability for a vessel. Using water in a tank allows for easier adjustment of weight than stone or iron ballast as was used in older vessels. It also allows for ballast to be pumped out to temporarily reduce the draft of the vessel when required to enter shallower water.
History
The basic concept behind the ballast tank can be seen in many forms of aquatic life, such as the blowfish or argonaut octopus,[1] and the concept has been invented and reinvented many times by humans to serve a variety of purposes. For example, in 1849 Abraham Lincoln, then an Illinois attorney, patented a ballast-tank system to enable cargo vessels to pass over shoals in North American rivers.
Ships
In order to provide adequate stability to vessels at sea, ballast is used to weigh the ship down and lower its centre of gravity. International agreements under the Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS) Convention require cargo vessels and passenger ships to be constructed so as to withstand certain kinds of damage. The criteria specify the separation of compartments within the vessel and also the subdivision of those compartments. The International agreements rely upon the states which have signed the agreement to implement the regulations within their waters and on vessels which are entitled to fly their flag. The ballast is generally seawater which is pumped into tanks known as ballast tanks. Depending on the type of vessel, the tanks can be double bottom (extending across the breadth of the vessel), wing tanks (located on the outboard area from keel to deck) or hopper tanks (occupying the upper corner section between hull and main deck). These ballast tanks are connected to pumps which can pump water in or out. These tanks are filled in order to add weight to the ship once cargo has been discharged, and improve its stability. In some extreme conditions, ballast water may be introduced to dedicated cargo spaces in order to add extra weight during heavy weather or to pass under low bridges.
Submarines
In submersibles and submarines, ballast tanks are used to control the buoyancy of the vessel.
Some submersibles, such as bathyscaphes, dive and re-surface solely by controlling their buoyancy. They flood ballast tanks to submerge, then to re-surface either drop discardable ballast weights, or used stored compressed air to blow their ballast tanks clear of water, becoming buoyant again.
Submarines are larger, more sophisticated and have powerful underwater propulsion. They must travel horizontal distances submerged, require precise control of depth, yet do not descend so deeply, nor need to diver vertically on station. Their primary means of controlling depth are thus their diving planes, in combination with forward motion. At the surface the ballast tanks are emptied to give positive buoyancy. When diving, the tanks are partially flooded to achieve neutral buoyancy. The planes are then adjusted together to drive the hull downwards, whilst still level. For a steeper dive, the stern planes may be reversed and used to pitch the hull downwards.
Submerging is done by opening the vents in the top of the ballast tanks, as well as opening the valves in the bottom. This allows water to flooding into the tank, and allows the air already present inside the tank to escape through the top vents. as the air escapes from the tank, the vessel's buoyancy decreases, thus causing it to sink. In order for the submarine to surface, the vents in the top of the ballast tanks are shut, and compressed air is allowed into the tanks. The high-pressure air pocket pushes the water out through the bottom valves and increases the vessel's buoyancy, causing it to rise. A submarine may have several types of ballast tank: the main ballast tanks, which are the main tanks used for diving and surfacing, and trimming tanks, which are used to adjust the submarine's attitude (its 'trim') both on the surface and when underwater.
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The hydraulic system cannot tell the difference between a force from a solid acting on the piston face, and the same weight of liquid contained within a solid.
Apparent weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_weight
In physics, apparent weight is a property of objects that corresponds to how heavy an object is. The apparent weight of an object will differ from the weight of an object whenever the force of gravity acting on the object is not balanced by an equal but opposite normal force. By definition, the weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on it. This means that even a "weightless" astronaut in low Earth orbit has almost the same weight as he would have while standing on the ground.
An object that rests on the ground is subject to a normal force exerted by the ground. The normal force acts only on the boundary of the object that is in contact with the ground. This force is transferred into the body; the force of gravity on every part of the body is balanced by stress forces acting on that part. A "weightless" astronaut feels weightless due to the absence of these stress forces. By defining the apparent weight of an object in terms of normal forces, one can capture this effect of the stress forces. A common definition is "the force the body exerts on whatever it rests on."[1]
The apparent weight can also differ from weight when an object is "partially or completely immersed in a fluid", where there is an "upthrust" from the liquid that is working against the force of gravity.[2] Another example is the weight of an object or person riding in an elevator. When the elevator begins rising, the object begins exerting a force in the downward direction. If a scale was used, it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.[3]
The role of apparent weight is also important in fluidization, when dealing with a number of particles, as it is the amount of force that the "upward drag force" needs to overcome in order for the particles to rise and for fluidization to occur.[4]
System
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex/intricate whole.[1] Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning.
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or behavior. Alternatively, and usually in the context of complex social systems, the term is used to describe the set of rules that govern structure and/or behavior.
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Mythbuster 2004 Ping Pong Salvage
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mythbusters+raise+boat
51% efficiency for ping pong balls, monocoque solid spheres filled with gas air internally.. hhop gen 3 is 100% efficient in liquid displacement per unit gas hho space volume 8)
To Infinity: How NASA envisioned life aboard giant spaceships back in 1970s (PICTURES)
https://www.rt.com/viral/336799-nasa-space-colony-future/
Ever wondered what life would be like for humans on a space colony? Well NASA certainly did back in the 1970s - and it turns out they were rather optimistic.
With the help of Princeton physicist Gerard O'Neill, NASA's Ames Research Center and Stanford University conducted three space colony summer studies back in the day and came up with some imaginative renderings of brave new worlds.
The project resulted in a series of incredible artistic impressions of communities thriving in man-made mega civilizations.
The key word in all of this: cylindrical. Vast, lush organic habitations, resembling a giant Kibbutz, are created inside space stations of epic proportions, the cylindrical arms of which support green, vibrant and surprisingly earth-like environments.
There are lakes, forests, parks, mountains, crop fields, clouds, traditional suburban neighborhoods, churches and towns. If the pictures are anything to go by, picnics and barbeques are de rigour for the 10,000 inhabitants who, it was envisioned, would move there.
A major part of this post-Apollo program dream was the deployment and use of numerous, massive satellites to help support these space communities. Many of these pictures first appeared in O'Neill's book The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space from 1976.
Of course some 40 years on from these images being produced, we are not much closer to creating these utopian space societies.
If the 1968 masterpiece 2001: A Space Odyssey was thinking big, it's fair to say we've adjusted our expectations since. Even Matt Damon in 2015's The Martian didn't get to enjoy much luxury on the Red Planet. He grew potatoes using the poo of astronauts as fertilizer.
O0
Conservative vector field
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_vector_field
In vector calculus a conservative vector field is a vector field that is the gradient of some function, known in this context as a scalar potential.[1] Conservative vector fields have the property that the line integral is path independent, i.e. the choice of integration path between any point and another does not change the result. Path independence of a line integral is equivalent to the vector field being conservative. A conservative vector field is also irrotational; in three dimensions this means that it has vanishing curl. An irrotational vector field is necessarily conservative provided that the domain is simply connected.
Conservative vector fields appear naturally in mechanics: they are vector fields representing forces of physical systems in which energy is conserved.[2] For a conservative system, the work done in moving along a path in configuration space depends only on the endpoints of the path, so it is possible to define a potential energy independently of the path taken.
State of matter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter
In physics, a state of matter is one of the distinct forms that matter takes on. Four states of matter are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Many other states are known to exist only in extreme situations, such as Bose–Einstein condensates, neutron-degenerate matter and quark-gluon plasma, which occur in situations of extreme cold, extreme density and extremely high-energy color-charged matter respectively. Some other states are believed to be possible but remain theoretical for now. For a complete list of all exotic states of matter, see the list of states of matter.
Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in properties. Matter in the solid state maintains a fixed volume and shape, with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) close together and fixed into place. Matter in the liquid state maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles are still close together but move freely. Matter in the gaseous state has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles are neither close together nor fixed in place. Matter in the plasma state has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely. Plasma is the most common form of visible matter in the universe.[1]
The term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but a system can contain several immiscible phases of the same state of matter (see Phase (matter) for further discussion of the difference between the two terms).
Vector space
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space
A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of objects called vectors, which may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers, called scalars in this context. Scalars are often taken to be real numbers, but there are also vector spaces with scalar multiplication by complex numbers, rational numbers, or generally any field. The operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication must satisfy certain requirements, called axioms, listed below.
Euclidean vectors are an example of a vector space. They represent physical quantities such as forces: any two forces (of the same type) can be added to yield a third, and the multiplication of a force vector by a real multiplier is another force vector. In the same vein, but in a more geometric sense, vectors representing displacements in the plane or in three-dimensional space also form vector spaces. Vectors in vector spaces do not necessarily have to be arrow-like objects as they appear in the mentioned examples: vectors are regarded as abstract mathematical objects with particular properties, which in some cases can be visualized as arrows.
Vector spaces are the subject of linear algebra and are well understood from this point of view since vector spaces are characterized by their dimension, which, roughly speaking, specifies the number of independent directions in the space. A vector space may be endowed with additional structure, such as a norm or inner product. Such spaces arise naturally in mathematical analysis, notably in the guise of infinite-dimensional function spaces whose vectors are functions. Analytical problems call for the ability to decide whether a sequence of vectors converges to a given vector. This is accomplished by considering vector spaces with additional structure, mostly spaces endowed with a suitable topology, thus allowing the consideration of proximity and continuity issues. These topological vector spaces, in particular Banach spaces and Hilbert spaces, have a richer theory.
Historically, the first ideas leading to vector spaces can be traced back as far as the 17th century's analytic geometry, matrices, systems of linear equations, and Euclidean vectors. The modern, more abstract treatment, first formulated by Giuseppe Peano in 1888, encompasses more general objects than Euclidean space, but much of the theory can be seen as an extension of classical geometric ideas like lines, planes and their higher-dimensional analogs.
Today, vector spaces are applied throughout mathematics, science and engineering. They are the appropriate linear-algebraic notion to deal with systems of linear equations; offer a framework for Fourier expansion, which is employed in image compression routines; or provide an environment that can be used for solution techniques for partial differential equations. Furthermore, vector spaces furnish an abstract, coordinate-free way of dealing with geometrical and physical objects such as tensors. This in turn allows the examination of local properties of manifolds by linearization techniques. Vector spaces may be generalized in several ways, leading to more advanced notions in geometry and abstract algebra.
Scalar potential
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_potential
Scalar potential, simply stated, describes the situation where the difference in the potential energies of an object in two different positions depends only on the positions, not upon the path taken by the object in traveling from one position to the other. It is a scalar field in three-space: a directionless value (scalar) that depends only on its location. A familiar example is potential energy due to gravity.
A scalar potential is a fundamental concept in vector analysis and physics (the adjective scalar is frequently omitted if there is no danger of confusion with vector potential). The scalar potential is an example of a scalar field. Given a vector field F, the scalar potential P is defined such that:
Switch
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.[1][2] The mechanism of a switch may be operated directly by a human operator to control a circuit (for example, a light switch or a keyboard button), may be operated by a moving object such as a door-operated switch, or may be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A relay is a switch that is operated by electricity. Switches are made to handle a wide range of voltages and currents; very large switches may be used to isolate high-voltage circuits in electrical substations.
Frame of reference
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference
In physics, a frame of reference (or reference frame) consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of physical reference points that uniquely fix (locate and orient) the coordinate system and standardize measurements.
In n dimensions, n+1 reference points are sufficient to fully define a reference frame. Using rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, a reference frame may be defined with a reference point at the origin and a reference point at one unit distance along each of the n coordinate axes.
In Einsteinian relativity, reference frames are used to specify the relationship between a moving observer and the phenomenon or phenomena under observation. In this context, the phrase often becomes "observational frame of reference" (or "observational reference frame"), which implies that the observer is at rest in the frame, although not necessarily located at its origin. A relativistic reference frame includes (or implies) the coordinate time, which does not correspond across different frames moving relatively to each other. The situation thus differs from Galilean relativity, where all possible coordinate times are essentially equivalent.
Piston
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.
Fire piston
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_piston
A fire piston, sometimes called a fire syringe or a slam rod fire starter, is a device of ancient origin which is used to kindle fire. It uses the principle of the heating of a gas (in this case air) by rapid and adiabatic compression to ignite a piece of tinder, which is then used to set light to kindling.[1]
Adiabatic invariant
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_invariant
An adiabatic invariant is a property of a physical system that stays constant when changes occur slowly.
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a change that occurs without heat flow, and slowly compared to the time to reach equilibrium. In an adiabatic process, the system is in equilibrium at all stages. Under these conditions, the entropy is constant.
In mechanics, an adiabatic change is a slow deformation of the Hamiltonian, where the fractional rate of change of the energy is much slower than the orbital frequency. The area enclosed by the different motions in phase space are the adiabatic invariants.
In quantum mechanics, an adiabatic change is one that occurs at a rate much slower than the difference in frequency between energy eigenstates. In this case, the energy states of the system do not make transitions, so that the quantum number is an adiabatic invariant.
The old quantum theory was formulated by equating the quantum number of a system with its classical adiabatic invariant. This determined the form of the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization rule: the quantum number is the area in phase space of the classical orbit.
Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, adiabatic changes are those that do not increase the entropy. They occur slowly, and allow heat flow only between objects at the same temperature. For isolated systems, an adiabatic change allows no heat to flow in or out.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Space and Time: Inertial Frames
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/
A "frame of reference" is a standard relative to which motion and rest may be measured; any set of points or objects that are at rest relative to one another enables us, in principle, to describe the relative motions of bodies. A frame of reference is therefore a purely kinematical device, for the geometrical description of motion without regard to the masses or forces involved. A dynamical account of motion leads to the idea of an "inertial frame," or a reference frame relative to which motions have distinguished dynamical properties. For that reason an inertial frame has to be understood as a spatial reference frame together with some means of measuring time, so that uniform motions can be distinguished from accelerated motions. The laws of Newtonian dynamics provide a simple definition: an inertial frame is a reference-frame with a time-scale, relative to which the motion of a body not subject to forces is always rectilinear and uniform, accelerations are always proportional to and in the direction of applied forces, and applied forces are always met with equal and opposite reactions. It follows that, in an inertial frame, the center of mass of a system of bodies is always at rest or in uniform motion. It also follows that any other frame of reference moving uniformly relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame. For example, in Newtonian celestial mechanics, taking the "fixed stars" as a frame of reference, we can determine an (approximately) inertial frame whose center is the center of mass of the solar system; relative to this frame, every acceleration of every planet can be accounted for (approximately) as a gravitational interaction with some other planet in accord with Newton's laws of motion.
This appears to be a simple and straightforward concept. By inquiring more narrowly into its origins and meaning, however, we begin to understand why it has been an ongoing subject of philosophical concern. It originated in a profound philosophical consideration of the principles of relativity and invariance in the context of Newtonian mechanics. Further reflections on it, in different theoretical contexts, had extraordinary consequences for 20th-century theories of space and time.
Mass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass
"Mass is not the same as weight"
Normal force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_force
In mechanics, the normal force F_n\ is the component, perpendicular to the surface (surface being a plane) of contact, of the contact force exerted on an object by, for example, the surface of a floor or wall, preventing the object from falling. Here "normal" refers to the geometry terminology for being perpendicular, as opposed the common language use of "normal" meaning common or expected. For example, consider a person standing still on the ground, in which case the ground reaction force reduces to the normal force. In another common situation, if an object hits a surface with some speed, and the surface can withstand it, the normal force provides for a rapid deceleration, which will depend on the flexibility of the surface.
In science and engineering, the weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity.[1][2] Weight is a vector whose magnitude (a scalar quantity), often denoted by an italic letter W, is the product of the mass m of the object and the magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration g;[3] thus: W = mg. The unit of measurement for weight is that of force, which in the International System of Units (SI) is the newton. For example, an object with a mass of one kilogram has a weight of about 9.8 newtons on the surface of the Earth, and about one-sixth as much on the Moon. In this sense of weight, a body can be weightless only if it is far away (in principle infinitely far away) from any other mass. Although weight and mass are scientifically distinct quantities, the terms are often confused with each other in everyday use.
Weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight
In science and engineering, the weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity.[1][2] Weight is a vector whose magnitude (a scalar quantity), often denoted by an italic letter W, is the product of the mass m of the object and the magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration g;[3] thus: W = mg. The unit of measurement for weight is that of force, which in the International System of Units (SI) is the newton. For example, an object with a mass of one kilogram has a weight of about 9.8 newtons on the surface of the Earth, and about one-sixth as much on the Moon. In this sense of weight, a body can be weightless only if it is far away (in principle infinitely far away) from any other mass. Although weight and mass are scientifically distinct quantities, the terms are often confused with each other in everyday use.[4]
There is also a rival tradition within Newtonian physics and engineering which sees weight as that which is measured when one uses scales. There the weight is a measure of the magnitude of the reaction force exerted on a body. Typically, in measuring an object's weight, the object is placed on scales at rest with respect to the earth, but the definition can be extended to other states of motion. Thus, in a state of free fall, the weight would be zero. In this second sense of weight, terrestrial objects can be weightless. Ignoring air resistance, the famous apple falling from the tree, on its way to meet the ground near Isaac Newton, is weightless.
Further complications in elucidating the various concepts of weight have to do with the theory of relativity according to which gravity is modelled as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime. In the teaching community, a considerable debate has existed for over half a century on how to define weight for their students. The current situation is that a multiple set of concepts co-exist and find use in their various contexts.[2]
Matter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter
Before the 20th century, the term matter included ordinary matter composed of atoms and excluded other energy phenomena such as light or sound. This concept of matter may be generalized from atoms to include any objects having mass even when at rest, but this is ill-defined because an object's mass can arise from its (possibly massless) constituents' motion and interaction energies. Thus, matter does not have a universal definition, nor is it a fundamental concept in physics today. Matter is also used loosely as a general term for the substance that makes up all observable physical objects.[1][2]
All the objects from everyday life that we can bump into, touch or squeeze are composed of atoms. This atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting subatomic particles—usually a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a cloud of orbiting electrons.[3][4] Typically, science considers these composite particles matter because they have both rest mass and volume. By contrast, massless particles, such as photons, are not considered matter, because they have neither rest mass nor volume. However, not all particles with rest mass have a classical volume, since fundamental particles such as quarks and leptons (sometimes equated with matter) are considered "point particles" with no effective size or volume. Nevertheless, quarks and leptons together make up "ordinary matter", and their interactions contribute to the effective volume of the composite particles that make up ordinary matter.
Matter exists in states (or phases): the classical solid, liquid, and gas; as well as the more exotic plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.[5]
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).[6]
Euclidean vector
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_vector
In mathematics, physics, and engineering, a Euclidean vector (sometimes called a geometric[1] or spatial vector,[2] or—as here—simply a vector) is a geometric object that has magnitude (or length) and direction and can be added to other vectors according to vector algebra. A Euclidean vector is frequently represented by a line segment with a definite direction, or graphically as an arrow, connecting an initial point A with a terminal point B,[3] and denoted by \overrightarrow{AB}.
A vector is what is needed to "carry" the point A to the point B; the Latin word vector means "carrier".[4] It was first used by 18th century astronomers investigating planet rotation around the Sun.[5] The magnitude of the vector is the distance between the two points and the direction refers to the direction of displacement from A to B. Many algebraic operations on real numbers such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and negation have close analogues for vectors, operations which obey the familiar algebraic laws of commutativity, associativity, and distributivity. These operations and associated laws qualify Euclidean vectors as an example of the more generalized concept of vectors defined simply as elements of a vector space.
Vectors play an important role in physics: velocity and acceleration of a moving object and forces acting on it are all described by vectors. Many other physical quantities can be usefully thought of as vectors. Although most of them do not represent distances (except, for example, position or displacement), their magnitude and direction can be still represented by the length and direction of an arrow. The mathematical representation of a physical vector depends on the coordinate system used to describe it. Other vector-like objects that describe physical quantities and transform in a similar way under changes of the coordinate system include pseudovectors and tensors.
Scalar potential
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_potential
Scalar potential, simply stated, describes the situation where the difference in the potential energies of an object in two different positions depends only on the positions, not upon the path taken by the object in traveling from one position to the other. It is a scalar field in three-space: a directionless value (scalar) that depends only on its location. A familiar example is potential energy due to gravity.
gravitational potential well of an increasing mass where \mathbf{F} = -\nabla P
A scalar potential is a fundamental concept in vector analysis and physics (the adjective scalar is frequently omitted if there is no danger of confusion with vector potential). The scalar potential is an example of a scalar field.
Boundary layer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_layer
In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface.
Gravitational potential
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_potential
In classical mechanics, the gravitational potential at a location is equal to the work (energy transferred) per unit mass that would be done by the force of gravity if an object were moved from its location in space to a fixed reference location. It is analogous to the electric potential with mass playing the role of charge. The reference location, where the potential is zero, is by convention infinitely far away from any mass, resulting in a negative potential at any finite distance.
In mathematics the gravitational potential is also known as the Newtonian potential and is fundamental in the study of potential theory.
g-force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-force
g-force (with g from gravitational) is a measurement of the type of acceleration that causes weight. Despite the name, it is incorrect to consider g-force a fundamental force, as "g-force" (lower case character) is a type of acceleration that can be measured with an accelerometer. Since g-force accelerations indirectly produce weight, any g-force can be described as a "weight per unit mass" (see the synonym specific weight). When the g-force acceleration is produced by the surface of one object being pushed by the surface of another object, the reaction-force to this push produces an equal and opposite weight for every unit of an object's mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior mechanical stresses. The g-force acceleration (save for certain electromagnetic force influences) is the cause of an object's acceleration in relation to free-fall.[1][2]
The g-force acceleration experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.
Gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the acceleration of a standard gravity. Thus, the standard gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface produces g-force only indirectly, as a result of resistance to it by mechanical forces. These mechanical forces actually produce the g-force acceleration on a mass. For example, the 1 g force on an object sitting on the Earth's surface is caused by mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free-fall. The upward contact-force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earth's surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition (Free fall is the path that the object would follow when falling freely toward the Earth's center). Stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground.
Objects allowed to free-fall in an inertial trajectory under the influence of gravitation-only, feel no g-force acceleration, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the "zero-g" conditions inside a freely falling elevator falling toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.
In the absence of gravitational fields, or in directions at right angles to them, proper and coordinate accelerations are the same, and any coordinate acceleration must be produced by a corresponding g-force acceleration. An example here is a rocket in free space, in which simple changes in velocity are produced by the engines, and produce g-forces on the rocket and passengers.
Rotation around a fixed axis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis
Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. The fixed axis hypothesis excludes the possibility of an axis changing its orientation, and cannot describe such phenomena as wobbling or precession. According to Euler's rotation theorem, simultaneous rotation along a number of stationary axes at the same time is impossible. If two rotations are forced at the same time, a new axis of rotation will appear.
This article assumes that the rotation is also stable, such that no torque is required to keep it going. The kinematics and dynamics of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid body are mathematically much simpler than those for free rotation of a rigid body; they are entirely analogous to those of linear motion along a single fixed direction, which is not true for free rotation of a rigid body. The expressions for the kinetic energy of the object, and for the forces on the parts of the object, are also simpler for rotation around a fixed axis, than for general rotational motion. For these reasons, rotation around a fixed axis is typically taught in introductory physics courses after students have mastered linear motion; the full generality of rotational motion is not usually taught in introductory physics classes.
Mass
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass
In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is generally a measure of an object's resistance to change its state of motion when a force is applied.[1] It is determined by the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other bodies, its resistance to acceleration or directional changes, and in the theory of relativity gives the mass–energy content of a system. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).
Mass is not the same as weight, even though we often calculate an object's mass by measuring its weight with a spring scale instead of comparing it to known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it would on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) causes this force.
In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object. However, at very high speeds or for subatomic particles, special relativity shows that energy is an additional source of mass. Thus, any stationary body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy, and all forms of energy resist acceleration by a force and have gravitational attraction. In addition, "matter" is a loosely defined term in science, and thus cannot be precisely measured.
Weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight
In science and engineering, the weight of an object is usually taken to be the force on the object due to gravity.[1][2] Weight is a vector whose magnitude (a scalar quantity), often denoted by an italic letter W, is the product of the mass m of the object and the magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration g;[3] thus: W = mg. The unit of measurement for weight is that of force, which in the International System of Units (SI) is the newton. For example, an object with a mass of one kilogram has a weight of about 9.8 newtons on the surface of the Earth, and about one-sixth as much on the Moon. In this sense of weight, a body can be weightless only if it is far away (in principle infinitely far away) from any other mass. Although weight and mass are scientifically distinct quantities, the terms are often confused with each other in everyday use.[4]
There is also a rival tradition within Newtonian physics and engineering which sees weight as that which is measured when one uses scales. There the weight is a measure of the magnitude of the reaction force exerted on a body. Typically, in measuring an object's weight, the object is placed on scales at rest with respect to the earth, but the definition can be extended to other states of motion. Thus, in a state of free fall, the weight would be zero. In this second sense of weight, terrestrial objects can be weightless. Ignoring air resistance, the famous apple falling from the tree, on its way to meet the ground near Isaac Newton, is weightless.
Further complications in elucidating the various concepts of weight have to do with the theory of relativity according to which gravity is modelled as a consequence of the curvature of spacetime. In the teaching community, a considerable debate has existed for over half a century on how to define weight for their students. The current situation is that a multiple set of concepts co-exist and find use in their various contexts.[2]
Matter
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter
Before the 20th century, the term matter included ordinary matter composed of atoms and excluded other energy phenomena such as light or sound. This concept of matter may be generalized from atoms to include any objects having mass even when at rest, but this is ill-defined because an object's mass can arise from its (possibly massless) constituents' motion and interaction energies. Thus, matter does not have a universal definition, nor is it a fundamental concept in physics today. Matter is also used loosely as a general term for the substance that makes up all observable physical objects.[1][2]
All the objects from everyday life that we can bump into, touch or squeeze are composed of atoms. This atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting subatomic particles—usually a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a cloud of orbiting electrons.[3][4] Typically, science considers these composite particles matter because they have both rest mass and volume. By contrast, massless particles, such as photons, are not considered matter, because they have neither rest mass nor volume. However, not all particles with rest mass have a classical volume, since fundamental particles such as quarks and leptons (sometimes equated with matter) are considered "point particles" with no effective size or volume. Nevertheless, quarks and leptons together make up "ordinary matter", and their interactions contribute to the effective volume of the composite particles that make up ordinary matter.
Matter exists in states (or phases): the classical solid, liquid, and gas; as well as the more exotic plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.[5]
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).[6]
Comparison with mass
Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not quite the same in modern physics.[7] For example, mass is a conserved quantity, which means that its value is unchanging through time, within closed systems. However, matter is not conserved in such systems, although this is not obvious in ordinary conditions on Earth, where matter is approximately conserved. Still, special relativity shows that matter may disappear by conversion into energy, even inside closed systems, and it can also be created from energy, within such systems. However, because mass (like energy) can neither be created nor destroyed, the quantity of mass and the quantity of energy remain the same during a transformation of matter (which represents a certain amount of energy) into non-material (i.e., non-matter) energy. This is also true in the reverse transformation of energy into matter.
Different fields of science use the term matter in different, and sometimes incompatible, ways. Some of these ways are based on loose historical meanings, from a time when there was no reason to distinguish mass and matter. As such, there is no single universally agreed scientific meaning of the word "matter". Scientifically, the term "mass" is well-defined, but "matter" is not. Sometimes in the field of physics "matter" is simply equated with particles that exhibit rest mass (i.e., that cannot travel at the speed of light), such as quarks and leptons. However, in both physics and chemistry, matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties, the so-called wave–particle duality.[8][9][10]
Definition
Based on mass, volume, and space
The common definition of matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space).[11][12] For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it has mass and volume (occupies space).
The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the phenomenon described in the Pauli exclusion principle.[13][14] Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.05.18, 17:17:14
Matter exists in states (or phases): the classical solid, liquid, and gas;
Each of these first three states of matter has two phases, a vector and scalar, switching the potential reference frames therefore becomes the key.
Defining the phases via polarity to the boundary plane is a consistent model across all the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas).
Hydraulic and pneumatic potential is significant in the liquid and gas states respectively.
hhop gen 3 and 4 is designed to produce electrical energy surplus from a fundamental force source, this is a significant mass based specific gravity field.
hhop gen 4 hybrid operates on hhop gen 3 and 4 principles, but the g-force is produced artificially by a rotational moment and a normalising plane boundary.
hhop gen 5 is purely rotational moment based within space time, and uses the spoke of the wheel as the fluid pump axis.. purely theoretical as I did not need to prove it to achieve my goal.. ain't that a kicker! >:-)
Equivalence principlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle
In the physics of general relativity, the equivalence principle is any of several related concepts dealing with the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass, and to Albert Einstein's observation that the gravitational "force" as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is actually the same as the pseudo-force experienced by an observer in a non-inertial (accelerated) frame of reference.
Flying space junk sees ISS crew take refuge in Soyuz craft
https://www.rt.com/news/310033-space-debris-iss-shelter/
Astronauts had to seek shelter inside the Soyuz vehicle, docked to the ISS, as space debris unexpectedly approached the station. However, the crew of two Russians and an American, were soon given the all clear to return back to the station.
As the information on approaching debris appeared too late to carry out an orbit adjustment of the International Space Station (ISS), the current three members of its crew had to stay inside the Soyuz vehicle for about 10 minutes, according to Roscosmos.
A hhophouse on Earth benefits from permanent 1G potential energy, and can provide for Everyman's needs, turning every desert green forever..
A hhophouse on the Moon provides the same, at 1/6th efficiency..
A hhophouse in geostationary orbit has a huge and dangerous debris field to deal with and so is a low priority option at this point..
A hhophouse on a spaceship harvesting electrical energy from the gravitational space time energy field is an incredibly exciting option!
How much fun you ape's wanna have before you die ?
The hhop gen 3 and 4 are based upon a significant mass gravitational field with a constant force of 1G at the surface of the planet Earth sphere.
The surface creates a boundary plane with an opposite, and equal normalising force, creating potential energy in the volume space occupied directly above the boundary plane.
This potential energy has two phases, an external vector force (magnitude and direction), and an internal pressure scalar (magnitude but no direction).
You have two different potentials occupying the same space..
The EmDrive
http://www.emdrive.com/
A New Concept in Spacecraft Propulsion
Satellite Propulsion Research Ltd (SPR Ltd) a small UK based company, has demonstrated a remarkable new space propulsion technology. The company has successfully tested both an experimental thruster and a demonstrator engine which use patented microwave technology to convert electrical energy directly into thrust. No propellant is used in the conversion process. Thrust is produced by the amplification of the radiation pressure of an electromagnetic wave propagated through a resonant waveguide assembly.
The hhop gen 4 hybrid is a hhop gen 4 in a rotational moment based specific gravity field. The 1G mass based force (planet Earth) is replaced with a spinning toroid generating 1G force, spin it faster and force increases as seen at the normal plane boundary..
hhop gen 5 is a hhop gen 3 or 4 exercise in exploring a gravitational gradient within the specific gravity field, and turning a fundamental force directly into electricity.. to run an EM drive powered by space itself..
Sphere
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere
A sphere (from Greek σφαῖρα — sphaira, "globe, ball"[1]) is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space that is the surface of a completely round ball, (viz., analogous to a circular object in two dimensions).[2] Like a circle, which geometrically is a two-dimensional object, a sphere is defined mathematically as the set of points that are all at the same distance r from a given point, but in three-dimensional space. This distance r is the radius of the ball, and the given point is the center of the mathematical ball. The longest straight line through the ball, connecting two points of the sphere, passes through the center and its length is thus twice the radius; it is a diameter of the ball.
While outside mathematics the terms "sphere" and "ball" are sometimes used interchangeably, in mathematics a distinction is made between the sphere (a two-dimensional closed surface embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space) and the ball (a three-dimensional shape that includes the sphere as well as everything inside the sphere). The ball and the sphere share the same radius, diameter, and center.
Cylinder (geometry)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_%28geometry%29
A cylinder (from Greek κύλινδρος – kulindros, "roller, tumbler"[1]) is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line, the axis of the cylinder. The solid enclosed by this surface and by two planes perpendicular to the axis is also called a cylinder. The surface area and the volume of a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity.
Toroid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toroid
In mathematics, a toroid is a surface of revolution with a hole in the middle, like a doughnut. The axis of revolution passes through the hole and so does not intersect the surface.
hhop gen 4 is a minimalist approach concerned with apparent weight:
Apparent weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_weight
In physics, apparent weight is a property of objects that corresponds to how heavy an object is. The apparent weight of an object will differ from the weight of an object whenever the force of gravity acting on the object is not balanced by an equal but opposite normal force. By definition, the weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on it. This means that even a "weightless" astronaut in low Earth orbit has almost the same weight as he would have while standing on the ground.
An object that rests on the ground is subject to a normal force exerted by the ground. The normal force acts only on the boundary of the object that is in contact with the ground. This force is transferred into the body; the force of gravity on every part of the body is balanced by stress forces acting on that part. A "weightless" astronaut feels weightless due to the absence of these stress forces. By defining the apparent weight of an object in terms of normal forces, one can capture this effect of the stress forces. A common definition is "the force the body exerts on whatever it rests on."[1]
The apparent weight can also differ from weight when an object is "partially or completely immersed in a fluid", where there is an "upthrust" from the liquid that is working against the force of gravity.[2] Another example is the weight of an object or person riding in an elevator. When the elevator begins rising, the object begins exerting a force in the downward direction. If a scale was used, it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.[3]
The role of apparent weight is also important in fluidization, when dealing with a number of particles, as it is the amount of force that the "upward drag force" needs to overcome in order for the particles to rise and for fluidization to occur.[4]
Gravitational field
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field
In physics, a gravitational field is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body.[1] Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena, and is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force between point masses. Following Newton, Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid, and since the 19th century explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms of a field model, rather than a point attraction.
In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the particles distort spacetime via their mass, and this distortion is what is perceived and measured as a "force". In such a model one states that matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of spacetime,[2] and that there is either no gravitational force,[3] or that gravity is a fictitious force.[4]
Fictitious force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_force
A fictitious force, also called a pseudo force,[1] d'Alembert force[2][3] or inertial force,[4][5] is an apparent force that acts on all masses whose motion is described using a non-inertial frame of reference, such as a rotating reference frame.
The force F does not arise from any physical interaction between two objects, but rather from the acceleration a of the non-inertial reference frame itself. As stated by Iro:[6][7]
Such an additional force due to nonuniform relative motion of two reference frames is called a pseudo-force.
— H. Iro in A Modern Approach to Classical Mechanics p. 180
Assuming Newton's second law in the form F = ma, fictitious forces are always proportional to the mass m.
A fictitious force on an object arises when the frame of reference used to describe the object's motion is accelerating compared to a non-accelerating frame. As a frame can accelerate in any arbitrary way, so can fictitious forces be as arbitrary (but only in direct response to the acceleration of the frame). However, four fictitious forces are defined for frames accelerated in commonly occurring ways: one caused by any relative acceleration of the origin in a straight line (rectilinear acceleration);[8] two involving rotation: centrifugal force and Coriolis force; and a fourth, called the Euler force, caused by a variable rate of rotation, should that occur. Gravitational force would also be a fictitious force based upon a field model in which particles distort spacetime due to their mass.
Gravitational constant
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_constant
The gravitational constant (also known as "universal gravitational constant", or as "Newton's constant"), denoted by the letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Its value is approximately 6.674×10−11 N⋅m2/kg2.[1]
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, (inverse-square law) between them.
Relative density
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_density
Relative density, or specific gravity,[1][2] is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity usually means relative density with respect to water. The term "relative density" is often preferred in modern scientific usage. It is defined as a ratio of density of particular substance with that of water.
If a substance's relative density is less than one then it is less dense than the reference; if greater than 1 then it is denser than the reference. If the relative density is exactly 1 then the densities are equal; that is, equal volumes of the two substances have the same mass. If the reference material is water then a substance with a relative density (or specific gravity) less than 1 will float in water. For example, an ice cube, with a relative density of about 0.91, will float. A substance with a relative density greater than 1 will sink.
Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm (101.325 kPa). Where it is not, it is more usual to specify the density directly. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British brewing practice the specific gravity as specified above is multiplied by 1000.[3] Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must, etc.) and acids.
Specific gravity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance; equivalently, it is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of a reference substance for the same given volume. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly always water at its densest (4°C) for liquids; for gases it is air at room temperature (21°C). Nonetheless, the temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm (101.325 kPa). Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British beer brewing, the practice for specific gravity as specified above is to multiply it by 1000.[1] Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines, hydrocarbons, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must etc.) and acids.
Specific weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_weight
The specific weight (also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of a material. The symbol of specific weight is γ (the Greek letter Gamma).
A commonly used value is the specific weight of water on Earth at 5°C which is 9.807 kN/m3 or 62.43 lbf/ft3. [1]
The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density.
Mass–energy equivalence
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence
In physics, mass–energy equivalence is a concept formulated by Albert Einstein that explains the relationship between mass and energy. It expresses the law of equivalence of energy and mass using the formula
E = mc2
where E is the energy of a physical system, m is the mass of the system, and c is the speed of light in a vacuum (about 3×108 m/s). In words, energy equals mass multiplied by the speed of light squared. Because the speed of light is a very large number in everyday units, the formula implies that any small amount of matter contains a very large amount of energy. Some of this energy may be released as heat and light by chemical or nuclear transformations. This also serves to convert units of mass to units of energy, no matter what system of measurement units used.
Mass–energy equivalence arose originally from special relativity as a paradox described by Henri Poincaré.[1] Einstein proposed it in 1905, in the paper Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content?, one of his Annus Mirabilis ("Miraculous Year") Papers.[2] Einstein was the first to propose that the equivalence of mass and energy is a general principle and a consequence of the symmetries of space and time.
A consequence of the mass–energy equivalence is that if a body is stationary, it still has some internal or intrinsic energy, called its rest energy. Rest mass and rest energy are equivalent and remain proportional to each other. When the body is in motion (relative to an observer), its total energy is greater than its rest energy. The rest mass (or rest energy) remains an important quantity in this case because it remains the same regardless of this motion, even for the extreme speeds or gravity considered in special and general relativity; thus it is also called the invariant mass.
Volume
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume
Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed by some closed boundary, for example, the space that a substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) or shape occupies or contains.[1] Volume is often quantified numerically using the SI derived unit, the cubic metre. The volume of a container is generally understood to be the capacity of the container, i. e. the amount of fluid (gas or liquid) that the container could hold, rather than the amount of space the container itself displaces.
Three dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes. Volumes of some simple shapes, such as regular, straight-edged, and circular shapes can be easily calculated using arithmetic formulas. Volumes of a complicated shape can be calculated by integral calculus if a formula exists for the shape's boundary. Where a variance in shape and volume occurs, such as those that exist between different human beings, these can be calculated using three-dimensional techniques such as the Body Volume Index. One-dimensional figures (such as lines) and two-dimensional shapes (such as squares) are assigned zero volume in the three-dimensional space.
The volume of a solid (whether regularly or irregularly shaped) can be determined by fluid displacement. Displacement of liquid can also be used to determine the volume of a gas. The combined volume of two substances is usually greater than the volume of one of the substances. However, sometimes one substance dissolves in the other and the combined volume is not additive.[2]
In differential geometry, volume is expressed by means of the volume form, and is an important global Riemannian invariant. In thermodynamics, volume is a fundamental parameter, and is a conjugate variable to pressure.
Three-dimensional space (mathematics)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional_space_%28mathematics%29
Three-dimensional space (also: 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This is the informal meaning of the term dimension.
In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n = 3, the set of all such locations is called three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is commonly represented by the symbol ℝ3. This serves as a three-parameter model of the physical universe (that is, the spatial part, without considering time) in which all known matter exists. However, this space is only one example of a large variety of spaces in three dimensions called 3-manifolds. In this classical example, when the three values refer to measurements in different directions (coordinates), any three directions can be chosen, provided that vectors in these directions do not all lie in the same 2-space (plane). Furthermore, in this case, these three values can be labeled by any combination of three chosen from the terms width, height, depth, and breadth.
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg44572#msg44572
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.01.24, 00:51:37
Original credit for the water piston concept is probably "The Pulsometer steam pump is a pistonless pump which was patented in 1872[1] by American Charles Henry Hall", the original inspiration for hhop.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsometer_pump
The Vogt engine might be in with a shout but I think was behind by a few decades.. hard to tell without the patent date:
http://overunity.com/13896/hho-hydrogen-and-diesel-injection-the-truth/msg379840/#msg379840
I am sure Tommey could build a hhop, I did it without a workshop on the living room floor in a few hours assembly time (most of the time was spent sealing the joints with ptfe tape and on some occasions loctite), and for a parts cost of around a few hundred $.. the automatic timing electrics need to be added but that is probably quite cheap and easy for the talented fellow's around here. hhop is a teaching aid and not the most advanced model but if I ever come out of retirement I might build another (I gave the original away to a friend) it sure was fun shooting water in the air! Shit my pants the first time though, the reaction is rapid, violent but reasonably quiet being muffled by the stainless housing. The neighbours never complained anyway.. don't think they even heard it.
Wait until people figure out what else you can do with it.. should be an interesting year! ^-^
How diving leatherback turtles regulate buoyancy
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101112075954.htm
Summary:
Virtually nothing has been known about leatherback turtle diving strategies, but now scientists have discovered that leatherbacks regulate their buoyancy by varying the amount of air they inhale before they dive. Fitting nesting leatherbacks with triaxial accelerometers, temperature and pressure gauges, the team was able to make the first detailed recordings of leatherback turtle diving behavior.
Leatherback turtles are remarkably versatile divers. Routinely diving to depths of several hundred meters, leatherbacks are occasionally known to plunge as deep as 1250 meters. The animals probably plumb the depths to avoid predators, search for prey and avoid heat in the tropics. However it wasn't clear how these mammoth reptiles regulate their buoyancy as they plunge down.
Sabrina Fossette from Swansea University explains that no one knew how the turtles descended so far: do they swim down or become negatively buoyant and plummet like a stone? Curious to find out how nesting leatherbacks plumb the depths, Rory Wilson and his long time collaborator, Molly Lutcavage, decided to deploy data loggers containing triaxial accelerometers on leatherback females as they nested on beaches on St Croix in the US Virgin Islands. They found that leatherbacks probably regulate their buoyancy by varying the amount of air they inhale just before submersion.
Their finding was published Nov. 12, 2010 in the Journal of Experimental Biology.
"When you first see a leatherback turtle coming out of the water it's like a dinosaur it's really impressive," says Fossette, having just returned from collecting data in the Indian Ocean. According to Fossette, Andy Myers, Nikolai Liebsch and Steve Garner attached accelerometers to five females as they laid their eggs, and then waited 8-12 days for the reptiles to return to the beach to lay more eggs having headed out to sea. Retrieving the accelerometers, the team found that only two of the five had collected usable data, but the data loggers that functioned showed 81 dives that the team could analyze ranging from 64 meters down to 462 meters.
Back in Swansea, Fossette, Adrian Gleiss, Graeme Hays and Rory Wilson analysed the temperature, pressure and acceleration data collected by the loggers. Describing the accelerometer data Fossette says, "You can almost see the animal swimming. It's the first time we could see the locomotor activity during those deep dives."
Extracting the acceleration data that showed the leatherbacks' movements, the team could see that the turtles dived deeply at an average angle of 41 degrees as they began their descent. Initially the turtles swam with each flipper stroke lasting 3 seconds, but as they descended further they swam less hard until they stopped swimming all together, became negatively buoyant and began gliding down. At the bottom of the dive, the turtles began swimming as they heading to the surface and continued swimming until they regained buoyancy near the surface and began gliding again.
Fossette explains that many diving animals exhale before they leave the surface to minimise the risk of decompression sickness, however, leatherbacks do not. They dive carrying a lung full of air. Curious to find whether leatherbacks vary the amount of air that they inhale to regulate their buoyancy, Fossette and Gleiss compared the depths at which the turtles became negatively buoyant with the maximum depth that they reached. The team found that the deepest divers remained buoyant the longest and started gliding at deeper depths. So the turtles probably regulate their buoyancy before diving by varying the amount of air they inhale. Fossette also says, "The nesting turtles may glide for 80 percent of the dive's descent to optimize their energetic reserves, which is crucial for the production of eggs."
The team is now keen to look at the diving patterns of leatherbacks in their foraging grounds in the North Atlantic. Fossette explains that nesting turtles lose weight while foraging turtles are gaining weight and this could affect their buoyancy and diving behaviour. However, tagging a 400-kilogram turtle in the ocean is a much bigger problem than tagging them on a beach.
hhop gen 3.. so what is cryogenic hhop gen 3, and is it operating in gas by electrolysis mode or gas by heat boiling mode ?
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.05.20, 14:34:16
Mass–energy equivalence arose originally from special relativity as a paradox described by Henri Poincaré.[1] Einstein proposed it in 1905, in the paper Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content?, one of his Annus Mirabilis ("Miraculous Year") Papers.[2] Einstein was the first to propose that the equivalence of mass and energy is a general principle and a consequence of the symmetries of space and time.
A consequence of the mass–energy equivalence is that if a body is stationary, it still has some internal or intrinsic energy, called its rest energy. Rest mass and rest energy are equivalent and remain proportional to each other. When the body is in motion (relative to an observer), its total energy is greater than its rest energy. The rest mass (or rest energy) remains an important quantity in this case because it remains the same regardless of this motion, even for the extreme speeds or gravity considered in special and general relativity; thus it is also called the invariant mass.
hhop includes weight as a property of mass in the presence of a normal force at a solid boundary plane.
hhop includes state of matter as a property of mass, and further defines this state into two fields, a vector and a scalar. These two separate property fields occupy the same space at the same time, and are energised by the same prime mover force, G, either/or flavour (mass based or acceleration based, within space time)..
A vector field operating as a weight can use potential G energy to compress, and therefore energise a scalar field (pascal's hydraulic laws). The scalar field lies dormant until the vector field has equalised, having used it's potential to do work (on the scalar field below it)..
The vector and scalar fields are both separate frames of reference within the same space time volume, and can be switched between reference frames at appropriate points in the cycle wave.
hhop operates within a specific gravity field.
Pulsometer pump
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsometer_pump
The Pulsometer steam pump is a pistonless pump which was patented in 1872[1] by American Charles Henry Hall. In 1875 a British engineer bought the patent rights of the Pulsometer[2] and it was introduced to the market soon thereafter. The invention was inspired by the Savery steam pump invented by Thomas Savery. Around the turn of the century, it was a popular and effective pump for quarry pumping.
Construction and operation
This extremely simple pump was made of cast iron, and had no pistons, rods, cylinders, cranks, or flywheels. It operated by the direct action of steam on water. The mechanism consisted of two chambers. As the steam condensed in one chamber, it acted as a suction pump, while in the other chamber, steam was introduced under pressure and so it acted as a force pump. At the end of every stroke, a ball valve consisting of a small brass ball moved slightly, causing the two chambers to swap functions from suction-pump to force-pump and vice versa. The result was that the water was first suction pumped and then force pumped.[3]
American energy firm looks to power up on pig poo
https://www.rt.com/business/344334-duke-energy-pig-poop/
US power company Duke Energy plans to buy methane gas produced from pig manure to power about nine hundred homes.
Is poo power trending ? ;D
Let's have a look at poo then..
Dry animal dung fuel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_animal_dung_fuel
Dry animal dung fuel (or dry manure fuel) is animal feces that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source. It is used as a fuel in many countries around the world. Using dry manure as a fuel source is an example of reuse of excreta. A disadvantage of using this kind of fuel is increased air pollution.[1]
History
Dry animal dung was used from prehistoric times,[13] including in Ancient Persia[9] and Ancient Egypt. In Equatorial Guinea archaeological evidence has been found of the practice[14] and biblical records indicate animal and human dung were used as fuel.[15]
VW's 'dung' Beetle: The car that leaves nothing to waste... thanks to its methane gas-powered engine
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1300546/Dung-Beetle-The-methane-gas-powered-car-leaves-waste.html
A car powered by methane gas has been created by a team of British engineers.
The vehicle named the 'Bio-Bug' is run reliably on biogas, which is produced from human waste at sewage works across the country.
Excrement flushed down the toilets of just 70 homes is enough to power the pioneering VW Beetle car for 10,000 miles - the equivalent of one average motoring year.
This conversion technology has been used in the past but the Bio-Bug is Britain's first car to run on methane gas without its performance being reduced.
The vehicle's improved reliability means that its makers believe it can 'blow away' electric cars and pave the way for a green motoring revolution.
Mohammed Saddiq, of sustainable energy firm GENeco, which developed the prototype promised that drivers 'won't know the difference'.
He said: 'Previously the gas hasn't been clean enough to fuel motor vehicles without it affecting performance.
Custom made gas from liquid compounds, like vinegar to ethane + CO2 and the water content producing hydrogen and oxygen.. as one example..
Primary process energy supplied by coupling the system to the specific gravity field and utilising field switching to extract an energy gain..
Fun times.. >:-)
An occasional peak at the communities progress can be entertaining!
http://overunity.com/16626/simple-ou-proof/msg485380/#new
You sure know how to make the Floor shake Chet..! ;D
http://overunity.com/8047/buoyancy-cycle-mg-where-the-h-is-free/msg201083/#msg201083
You were so close Smoky2.. and yet so far away.. ;D
http://overunity.com/6028/h20-and-bouyancy/msg137038/#msg137038
AB Hammer:
"Where are you going to get the energy to run the electrolyser to run the device? This is what kills most ideas before any possible build and is what we have to overcome to get over unity. "
"But the real sin is not to try at all. Nobody is perfect, even us who have built several devices can and will still make mistakes. For this is by no means a precise science. After several builds people will learn several things that have to be addressed at all time and then we truly learn what has to happen to get a runner. it is like a large jigsaw puzzle with several missing pieces. Those who figure what the missing pieces are will build a runner."
That was good advice.. I wonder if I read it all those years ago ? The memory is a fragile thing and somewhat revisionist in nature, depending upon points of view for context.. no matter.. the job is done now and you all understand how the jigsaw pieces fit together, don't you.. ? Where does hhop take us all.. ?
hhop gen 4 update 5 8)
hhop map gen 4 hybrid 5
hhop 4 is significant mass based G force within a specific gravity field.
hhop gen 4 hybrid is acceleration G force based within a specific gravity field, substituting spatial rotation for significant mass based G force.
hhop gen 5 is acceleration G force based within a specific gravity field, G force is a gradient variable dependent on fluid density within hhop gen 5 only, in gen 4 models G is treated as a constant.
The hybrid substitutes significant mass based G for rotational moment based G (acceleration within space time about a fixed point).
CHAPTER 16: Accumulators
http://hydraulicspneumatics.com/other-technologies/chapter-16-accumulators
Weight loaded: All gas-charged accumulators lose pressure as fluid discharges. This is because the nitrogen gas was compressed by incoming fluid from the pump and the gas must expand to push fluid out. The weight-loaded accumulator in Figure 16-1 does not lose pressure until the ram bottoms out. Thus 100% of the fluid is useful at full system pressure. The major drawback to weight-loaded accumulators is their physical size. They take up a lot of space and are very heavy if much volume is required. They work well in central hydraulic systems because there usually is room for them in the power unit area. However, central hydraulic systems are falling out of favor, so only a few facilities use weight-loaded accumulators. (Rolling mills are one application where space to place large items is not a problem.) Note that there is often a long dwell time to fill these monsters.
Define the green area of the graph.. O0
World line
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
In physics, the world line of an object is the path of that object in 4-dimensional spacetime, tracing the history of its location in space at each instant in time. The concept of "world line" is distinguished from the concept of "orbit" or "trajectory" (such as an orbit in space or a trajectory of a truck on a road map) by the time dimension, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein perceptually straight paths are recalculated to show their (relatively) more absolute position states — to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions. The idea of world lines originates in physics and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now most often used in relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity).
Usage in physics
In physics, a world line of an object (approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is a time-like curve in spacetime. Each point of a world line is an event that can be labeled with the time and the spatial position of the object at that time.
For example, the orbit of the Earth in space is approximately a circle, a three-dimensional (closed) curve in space: the Earth returns every year to the same point in space. However, it arrives there at a different (later) time. The world line of the Earth is helical in spacetime (a curve in a four-dimensional space) and does not return to the same point.
Spacetime is the collection of points called events, together with a continuous and smooth coordinate system identifying the events. Each event can be labeled by four numbers: a time coordinate and three space coordinates; thus spacetime is a four-dimensional space. The mathematical term for spacetime is a four-dimensional manifold. The concept may be applied as well to a higher-dimensional space. For easy visualizations of four dimensions, two space coordinates are often suppressed. The event is then represented by a point in a Minkowski diagram, which is a plane usually plotted with the time coordinate, say t, upwards and the space coordinate, say x, horizontally. As expressed by F.R. Harvey
A curve M in [spacetime] is called a worldline of a particle if its tangent is future timelike at each point. The arclength parameter is called proper time and usually denoted τ. The length of M is called the proper time of the worldline or particle. If the worldline M is a line segment, then the particle is said to be in free fall.[1]
A world line traces out the path of a single point in spacetime. A world sheet is the analogous two-dimensional surface traced out by a one-dimensional line (like a string) traveling through spacetime. The world sheet of an open string (with loose ends) is a strip; that of a closed string (a loop) is a volume.
Once the object is not approximated as a mere point but has extended volume, it traces out not a world line but rather a world tube.
hhop fait accompli
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fait%20accompli
Simple Definition of fait accompli
: something that has been done and cannot be changed
'New era of astronomy': Gravitational waves detected for 2nd time, backing up theory of relativity
https://www.rt.com/news/346832-gravitational-waves-detected-second/
Scientists from the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO) have announced they have detected gravitational waves from a pair of colliding black holes for the second time, thus backing up the theory of general relativity.
some gathered parts for the replication [nice gravity battery and football sized tube about 8 foot tall]
Grum says "go big or go home" ,Circuit board should be here tomorrow.
[please remove post if its in the wrong spot]
O0
Quote from: Chet K on 2016.06.16, 16:06:59
some gathered parts for the replication [nice gravity battery and football sized tube about 8 foot tall]
Grum says "go big or go home" ,Circuit board should be here tomorrow.
[please remove post if its in the wrong spot]
O0
Good grief Chet !! :o
However there's a simple answer in your post............ Football might make an excellent piston? ;) ;) ;)
In anticipation, cheers Grum.
Great minds think alike..... :o
As a first step you would be better off building a small tabletop version that cycles where you can see what is going on:
http://www.plastock.co.uk/polycarbonate-extruded-clear-tube?gclid=CI2qwPHWrs0CFfYy0wodQ6oEzw
Graham is correct when he says "go big or go home" and that applies to all weight loaded accumulators, it does not apply to hhop gen 5 however as the g force is rotational moment based and not mass based.
You need to build hhop gen 4 but you can leave the water wheel and alternator out to begin with and simply run a continuous cycle water pump, powered by the gravitational field.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_%28geometry%29#Volume
If the cylinder has a radius r and length (height) h, then its volume is given by
V = πr2h
Your weight force is measured in Kg and your runtime is measured in litres, so calculate the volume of your tube and then halve it applying the appropiate units to each chamber. You will notice that a change in either the height or the radius will change your force and liquid volume variables.
Construct a table focusing on radius and keep your height constant to begin with, get a feel for what you are trying to do. A successful mindset will see 99% of the work done in the mind so only proceed when you are sure you know why you are going to do something.. using the above formula for a cylinder you can calculate your variables before hand, and using established micro hydro laws you will be able to determine how big the gen 4 needs to be for the power output you are aiming for.
A second clear tube half the length of your exterior chamber tube, and slightly smaller in diameter, will sleeve inside (with an air gap) and make a good hollow piston. You can get laser cut discs from clear polycarbonate sheet to build the piston face, glued together using cyanoacrylate and the capillary process, finished with some sealant if you wanna be fancy.. this will allow you to construct your oring groove and only requires 3 clear discs.. you can now put your switch in the piston face.. a single thick piston face would require an oring groove to be turned on the exterior diameter and most of us do not have that lathe capability hence the glueing option. You could of course build a pattern and cast your hollow piston face which would make it all one piece with an oring groove.. up to you how you proceed but I would advise it is helpful to see what is going on to begin with..
O0
is hhop gen 4 like this ?
http://cikguwong.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/physics-form-4-chapter-3-hydraulic-jack.html
Convert newton to kilogram:
http://www.convertunits.com/from/N/to/kg
hhop gen 4 update 2
Kelvin water dropper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper
The Kelvin water dropper, invented by Scottish scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1867,[1] is a type of electrostatic generator. Kelvin referred to the device as his water-dropping condenser. The apparatus is variously called the Kelvin hydroelectric generator, the Kelvin electrostatic generator, or Lord Kelvin's thunderstorm. The device uses falling water to generate voltage differences by electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems. Its only use has been in physics education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.
hhop gen 1 was running in 2011.. this wiki entry is in need of an update!
hhop gen 1
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.03.03, 18:22:05
Apparent weight
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_weight
In physics, apparent weight is a property of objects that corresponds to how heavy an object is. The apparent weight of an object will differ from the weight of an object whenever the force of gravity acting on the object is not balanced by an equal but opposite normal force. By definition, the weight of an object is equal to the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on it. This means that even a "weightless" astronaut in low Earth orbit has almost the same weight as he would have while standing on the ground.
An object that rests on the ground is subject to a normal force exerted by the ground. The normal force acts only on the boundary of the object that is in contact with the ground. This force is transferred into the body; the force of gravity on every part of the body is balanced by stress forces acting on that part. A "weightless" astronaut feels weightless due to the absence of these stress forces. By defining the apparent weight of an object in terms of normal forces, one can capture this effect of the stress forces. A common definition is "the force the body exerts on whatever it rests on."[1]
The apparent weight can also differ from weight when an object is "partially or completely immersed in a fluid", where there is an "upthrust" from the liquid that is working against the force of gravity.[2] Another example is the weight of an object or person riding in an elevator. When the elevator begins rising, the object begins exerting a force in the downward direction. If a scale was used, it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.[3]
The role of apparent weight is also important in fluidization, when dealing with a number of particles, as it is the amount of force that the "upward drag force" needs to overcome in order for the particles to rise and for fluidization to occur.[4]
System
A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex/intricate whole.[1] Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning.
The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or behavior. Alternatively, and usually in the context of complex social systems, the term is used to describe the set of rules that govern structure and/or behavior.
Scientific theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_theory
A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly tested and confirmed, preferably using a written, pre-defined, protocol of observations and experiments.[1][2] Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge.[3]
It is important to note that the definition of a "scientific theory" (often ambiguously contracted to "theory" for the sake of brevity, including in this page) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from, and in contrast to, the common vernacular usage of the word "theory". As used in everyday non-scientific speech, "theory" implies that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, conjecture, idea, or, hypothesis;[4] such a usage is the opposite of the word 'theory' in science. These different usages are comparable to the differing, and often opposing, usages of the term "prediction" in science (less ambiguously called a "scientific prediction") versus "prediction" in vernacular speech, denoting a mere hope.
The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain, and to its elegance and simplicity (see Occam's razor). As additional scientific evidence is gathered, a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings; in such circumstances, a more accurate theory is then desired. In certain cases, the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful (due to its sheer simplicity) as an approximation under specific conditions (e.g., Newton's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light).
Scientific theories are usually testable and make falsifiable predictions.[5] They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon, and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry (e.g., electricity, chemistry, astronomy). Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease.
As with most, if not all, forms of scientific knowledge, scientific theories are both deductive and inductive[6][7] in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability.
Axiom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom
An axiom or postulate as defined in classic philosophy, is a statement (in mathematics often shown in symbolic form) that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question. Thus, the axiom can be used as the premise or starting point for further reasoning or arguments, usually in logic or in mathematics.[1] The word comes from the Greek axíōma (ἀξίωμα) 'that which is thought worthy or fit' or 'that which commends itself as evident.'[2][3]
As used in modern logic, an axiom is simply a premise or starting point for reasoning.[4] Whether it is meaningful (and, if so, what it means) for an axiom, or any mathematical statement, to be "true" is a central question[citation needed] in the philosophy of mathematics, with modern mathematicians[who?] holding a multitude of different opinions.[5]
As used in mathematics, the term axiom is used in two related but distinguishable senses: "logical axioms" and "non-logical axioms". Logical axioms are usually statements that are taken to be true within the system of logic they define (e.g., (A and B) implies A), while non-logical axioms (e.g., a + b = b + a) are actually substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory (such as arithmetic). When used in the latter sense, "axiom", "postulate", and "assumption" may be used interchangeably. In general, a non-logical axiom is not a self-evident truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory. As modern mathematics admits multiple, equally "true" systems of logic, precisely the same thing must be said for logical axioms - they both define and are specific to the particular system of logic that is being invoked. To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood set of sentences (the axioms). There are typically multiple ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain.
In both senses, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Within the system they define, axioms (unless redundant) cannot be derived by principles of deduction, nor are they demonstrable by mathematical proofs, simply because they are starting points; there is nothing else from which they logically follow otherwise they would be classified as theorems. However, an axiom in one system may be a theorem in another, and vice versa.
Work, Energy, and Power - Lesson 1 - Basic Terminology and Concepts
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/Lesson-1/Definition-and-Mathematics-of-Work
Definition and Mathematics of Work
In the first three units of The Physics Classroom, we utilized Newton's laws to analyze the motion of objects. Force and mass information were used to determine the acceleration of an object. Acceleration information was subsequently used to determine information about the velocity or displacement of an object after a given period of time. In this manner, Newton's laws serve as a useful model for analyzing motion and making predictions about the final state of an object's motion. In this unit, an entirely different model will be used to analyze the motion of objects. Motion will be approached from the perspective of work and energy. The effect that work has upon the energy of an object (or system of objects) will be investigated; the resulting velocity and/or height of the object can then be predicted from energy information. In order to understand this work-energy approach to the analysis of motion, it is important to first have a solid understanding of a few basic terms. Thus, Lesson 1 of this unit will focus on the definitions and meanings of such terms as work, mechanical energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, and power.
When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said that work was done upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force must cause the displacement. There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life - a horse pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced.
Work, Energy, and Power - Lesson 2 - The Work-Energy Relationship
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/Lesson-2/Internal-vs-External-Forces
Internal vs. External Forces
There are a variety of ways to categorize all the types of forces. In a previous unit, it was mentioned that all the types of forces could be categorized as contact forces or as action-at-a-distance forces. Whether a force was categorized as an action-at-a-distance force was dependent upon whether or not that type of force could exist even when the objects were not physically touching. The force of gravity, electrical forces, and magnetic forces were examples of forces that could exist between two objects even when they are not physically touching. In this lesson, we will learn how to categorize forces based upon whether or not their presence is capable of changing an object's total mechanical energy. We will learn that there are certain types of forces, that when present and when involved in doing work on objects will change the total mechanical energy of the object. And there are other types of forces that can never change the total mechanical energy of an object, but rather can only transform the energy of an object from potential energy to kinetic energy (or vice versa). The two categories of forces are referred to as internal forces and external forces.
What Does Work Do?
Forces can be categorized as internal forces or external forces. There are many sophisticated and worthy ways of explaining and distinguishing between internal and external forces. Many of these ways are commonly discussed at great length in physics textbooks - particularly college-level physics textbooks. For our purposes, we will simply say that external forces include the applied force, normal force, tension force, friction force, and air resistance force. And for our purposes, the internal forces include the gravity forces, magnetic force, electrical force, and spring force. While this is a simplistic approach, it is an approach that will serve us well in our introduction to physics.
The importance of categorizing a force as being either internal or external is related to the ability of that type of force to change an object's total mechanical energy when it does work upon an object. When net work is done upon an object by an external force, the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object is changed. If the work is positive work, then the object will gain energy. If the work is negative work, then the object will lose energy. The gain or loss in energy can be in the form of potential energy, kinetic energy, or both. Under such circumstances, the work that is done will be equal to the change in mechanical energy of the object. This principle will be discussed in great detail later in this lesson. Because external forces are capable of changing the total mechanical energy of an object, they are sometimes referred to as nonconservative forces.
When the only type of force doing net work upon an object is an internal force (for example, gravitational and spring forces), the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object remains constant. In such cases, the object's energy changes form. For example, as an object is "forced" from a high elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, some of the potential energy of that object is transformed into kinetic energy. Yet, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies remains constant. This is referred to as energy conservation and will be discussed in detail later in this lesson. When the only forces doing work are internal forces, energy changes forms - from kinetic to potential (or vice versa); yet the total amount of mechanical is conserved. Because internal forces are capable of changing the form of energy without changing the total amount of mechanical energy, they are sometimes referred to as conservative forces.
Newton's Laws - Lesson 2 - Force and Its Representation
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/newtlaws/u2l2a.cfm
The Meaning of Force
A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
Contact versus Action-at-a-Distance Forces
For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:
- contact forces, and
- forces resulting from action-at-a-distance
Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces. These specific forces will be discussed in more detail later in Lesson 2 as well as in other lessons.
Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical separation. Examples of action-at-a-distance forces include gravitational forces. For example, the sun and planets exert a gravitational pull on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull between you and the Earth. Electric forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example, the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation. And magnetic forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example, two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimeters. These specific forces will be discussed in more detail later in Lesson 2 as well as in other lessons.
Force is a Vector Quantity
A force is a vector quantity. As learned in an earlier unit, a vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. To fully describe the force acting upon an object, you must describe both the magnitude (size or numerical value) and the direction. Thus, 10 Newton is not a full description of the force acting upon an object. In contrast, 10 Newton, downward is a complete description of the force acting upon an object; both the magnitude (10 Newton) and the direction (downward) are given.
1-D Kinematics - Lesson 1 - Describing Motion with Words
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Scalars-and-Vectors
Scalars and Vectors
Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles have a mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study of physics, we will encounter a variety of concepts that have a mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will often be upon the conceptual nature of physics, we will give considerable and persistent attention to its mathematical aspect.
The motion of objects can be described by words. Even a person without a background in physics has a collection of words that can be used to describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast, stopped, slowing down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the motion of objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will be expanding upon this vocabulary list with words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. As we will soon see, these words are associated with mathematical quantities that have strict definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a scalar. These two categories can be distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:
- Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
- Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
The remainder of this lesson will focus on several examples of vector and scalar quantities (distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration). As you proceed through the lesson, give careful attention to the vector and scalar nature of each quantity. As we proceed through other units at The Physics Classroom Tutorial and become introduced to new mathematical quantities, the discussion will often begin by identifying the new quantity as being either a vector or a scalar.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Distance-and-Displacement
Distance and Displacement
Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same thing yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings.
- Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during its motion.
- Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the object's overall change in position.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Speed-and-Velocity
Speed and Velocity
Just as distance and displacement have distinctly different meanings (despite their similarities), so do speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity that refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be thought of as the rate at which an object covers distance. A fast-moving object has a high speed and covers a relatively large distance in a short amount of time. Contrast this to a slow-moving object that has a low speed; it covers a relatively small amount of distance in the same amount of time. An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.
Velocity as a Vector Quantity
Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position." Imagine a person moving rapidly - one step forward and one step back - always returning to the original starting position. While this might result in a frenzy of activity, it would result in a zero velocity. Because the person always returns to the original position, the motion would never result in a change in position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which the position changes, this motion results in zero velocity. If a person in motion wishes to maximize their velocity, then that person must make every effort to maximize the amount that they are displaced from their original position. Every step must go into moving that person further from where he or she started. For certain, the person should never change directions and begin to return to the starting position.
Velocity is a vector quantity. As such, velocity is direction aware. When evaluating the velocity of an object, one must keep track of direction. It would not be enough to say that an object has a velocity of 55 mi/hr. One must include direction information in order to fully describe the velocity of the object. For instance, you must describe an object's velocity as being 55 mi/hr, east. This is one of the essential differences between speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar quantity and does not keep track of direction; velocity is a vector quantity and is direction aware.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Acceleration
Acceleration
The final mathematical quantity discussed in Lesson 1 is acceleration. An often confused quantity, acceleration has a meaning much different than the meaning associated with it by sports announcers and other individuals. The definition of acceleration is:
- Acceleration is a vector quantity that is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.
Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating if he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast. A person can be moving very fast and still not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating. The data at the right are representative of a northward-moving accelerating object. The velocity is changing over the course of time. In fact, the velocity is changing by a constant amount - 10 m/s - in each second of time. Anytime an object's velocity is changing, the object is said to be accelerating; it has an acceleration.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.07.02, 14:08:11
Kelvin water dropper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper
The device uses falling water to generate voltage differences by electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems.
Kelvin water dropper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_water_dropper
The Kelvin water dropper, invented by Scottish scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1867,[1] is a type of electrostatic generator. Kelvin referred to the device as his water-dropping condenser. The apparatus is variously called the Kelvin hydroelectric generator, the Kelvin electrostatic generator, or Lord Kelvin's thunderstorm. The device uses falling water to generate voltage differences by electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems. Its only use has been in physics education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.
Details
If the buckets are metal conductors, then the built-up charge resides on the outside of the metal, not in the water. This is part of the electrical induction process, and is an example of the related "Faraday's ice bucket." Also, the idea of bringing small amounts of charge into the center of a large metal object with a large net charge, as happens in Kelvin's water dropper, relies on the same physics as in the operation of a van de Graaff generator.
The discussion above is in terms of charged droplets falling. The inductive charging effects occur while the water stream is continuous. This is because the flow and separation of charge occurs already when the streams of water approach the rings, so that when the water passes through the rings there is already net charge on the water. When drops form, some net charge is trapped on each drop as gravity pulls it toward the like-charged container.
When the containers are metal, the wires may be attached to the metal. Otherwise, the container-end of each wire must dip into the water. In the latter case, the charge resides on the surface of the water, not outside of the containers.
The apparatus can be extended to more than two streams of droplets.[4]
Self-Excited ac High Voltage Generation Using Water Droplets
http://scitation.aip.org/content/aapt/journal/ajp/41/2/10.1119/1.1987174
By letting water drops fall through rings into cans, high voltage can be spontaneously generated with no external electrical excitation. Previous work concerning this type of electric influence machine for dc and three-phase ac high voltage generation is extended to include multiphase, multifrequency operation by considering N streams and N cans. A distributed equivalent circuit representation is used to calculate the natural frequencies of the system, where it is found that many overstable modes are present. Experimental observations with up to five cans are presented. This device can serve as a model for phenomena concerned with atmospheric electricity.
In 2013, a combined group from the University of Twente (the Netherlands) constructed a microfluidic version of the Kelvin water dropper, which yields electrical voltages able to charge, deform and break water droplets of micrometric size by just using pneumatic force instead of gravity.[5]
The microfluidic Kelvin water dropper
http://arxiv.org/abs/1309.2866
The so-called "Kelvin water dropper" is a simple experiment demonstrating the spontaneous appearance of induced free charge in droplets emitted through a tube. As Lord Kelvin explained, water droplets spontaneously acquire a net charge during detachment from a faucet due to the presence of electrical fields in their surrounding created by any metallic object. In his experiment, two streams of droplets are allowed to drip from separated nozzles into separated buckets, which are at the same time interconnected through the dripping needles. In this paper we build a microfluidic water dropper and demonstrate that the droplets get charged and break-up due to electrohydrodynamic instabilities. A comparison with recent simulations shows the dependence of the acquired charge in the droplets on different parameters of the system. The phenomenon opens a door to cheap and accessible transformation of pneumatic pressure into electrical energy and to an enhanced control in microfluidic and biophysical manipulation of capsules, cells and droplets via self-induced charging of the elements.
Pulsometer pump
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsometer_pump
The Pulsometer steam pump is a pistonless pump which was patented in 1872[1] by American Charles Henry Hall. In 1875 a British engineer bought the patent rights of the Pulsometer[2] and it was introduced to the market soon thereafter. The invention was inspired by the Savery steam pump invented by Thomas Savery. Around the turn of the century, it was a popular and effective pump for quarry pumping.
Construction and operation
This extremely simple pump was made of cast iron, and had no pistons, rods, cylinders, cranks, or flywheels. It operated by the direct action of steam on water. The mechanism consisted of two chambers. As the steam condensed in one chamber, it acted as a suction pump, while in the other chamber, steam was introduced under pressure and so it acted as a force pump. At the end of every stroke, a ball valve consisting of a small brass ball moved slightly, causing the two chambers to swap functions from suction-pump to force-pump and vice versa. The result was that the water was first suction pumped and then force pumped.[3]
A good explanation can be found in the 1901 article referenced below:
The operation of the pulsometer is as follows: The ball being at the entrance of the left-hand chamber, and the right-hand being full of water, steam enters, pressing on the surface of the water, and forcing it out through the discharge passage. A rapid condensation of steam occurs from contact with the water and with the walls of the chamber, previously cooled by the water. When the water level has reached the horizontal edge of the discharge passage, a large volume of steam suddenly escapes and is at once condensed by the relatively cold water between the chamber and the discharge valve. The pressure in the chamber quickly decreases; it cannot be sustained by steam from the boiler, for, in accordance with the inventor's first specifications, the steam pipe is small. If now the pressure in the left chamber is equal, or nearly equal, to that in the right, friction caused by the rapid flow of steam past the ball will draw the ball over and close the right-hand chamber. Cut off from further supply, the steam, in contact with water, begins to condense; a jet of cold water from the discharge pipe spurts up through the injection tube, and by breaking into spray against the side of the steam space, completes the condensation. The partial vacuum produced brings water through the suction valve to fill the chamber; but at the same time the air valve admits a little air, which passes up ahead of the water and forms an elastic cushion to prevent the water from striking violently against the steam ball. The air chamber is for the purpose of preventing water-hammer in the suction pipe.
Advantages
The pump ran automatically without attendance. It was praised for its "extreme simplicity of construction, operation, compact form, high efficiency, economy, durability, and adaptability". Later designs were improved upon to enhance efficiency and to make the machine more accessible for inspection and repairs, thus reducing maintenance costs.[4]
Detailed analysis
In the January 1901 issue of Technology Quarterly and Proceedings of the Society of Arts, an article appeared by Joseph C. Riley[5] describing key operational details and technical evaluation of the pulsometer pump's performance. Riley noted that although somewhat inefficient, the pulsometer's simplicity and robust construction made it well suited to pumping "thick liquids or semi-fluids, such as heavy syrups, or even liquid mud".[6]
Pulsometer Engineering Company Limited
Pulsometer Engineering Company Limited was founded in Britain in 1875 after a British engineer bought the patent rights of the pulsometer pump from Thomas Hall. In 1901 the company moved from London to Reading, Berkshire. In 1961 Pulsometer merged with Sigmund Pumps of Gateshead to form Sigmund Pulsometer Pumps (SPP). SPP Ltd is now part of Kirloskar Brothers Ltd.
Electrolysis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses a direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell. The voltage that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential.
hhop gen 1
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.03.20, 22:54:06
Mythbuster 2004 Ping Pong Salvage
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mythbusters+raise+boat
51% efficiency for ping pong balls, monocoque solid spheres filled with gas air internally.. hhop gen 3 is 100% efficient in liquid displacement per unit gas hho space volume 8)
MythBustershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MythBusters
MythBusters is a science entertainment television program created by Peter Rees and produced by Australia's Beyond Television Productions.[1] The series premiered on the Discovery Channel on January 23, 2003. The series was transmitted by numerous international broadcasters, including SBS Australia (New episodes, repeat episodes show on 7mate Australia), and other Discovery channels worldwide. The show's hosts, special effects experts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman, used elements of the scientific method to test the validity of rumors, myths, movie scenes, adages, Internet videos, and news stories. The show was one of the oldest—and the most popular—on Discovery Channel, being preceded only by How It's Made and Daily Planet, both in Canada. From 2006 to 2016, the show was overseen by British show-runner Dan Tapster, working out of Sydney, San Francisco and Manchester.
Filmed in San Francisco and edited in Artarmon, New South Wales, Australia, MythBusters aired 282 total episodes before its cancellation at the end of its 2016 season in March. Planning and some experimentation took place at Hyneman's workshops in San Francisco; experiments requiring more space or special accommodations were filmed on location, typically around the San Francisco Bay Area and other locations in northern California, going to other states or even countries on occasion when required.
During the second season, members of Savage's and Hyneman's behind-the-scenes team were organized into a second team of MythBusters ("The Build Team"). They generally tested myths separately from the main duo and operated from another workshop. This arrangement continued until August 2014, when it was announced at the end of "Plane Boarding" that Tory Belleci, Kari Byron, and Grant Imahara would be leaving the show, leaving only Hyneman and Savage as presenters and taking the show back to its origins.[2][3] On October 21, 2015, it was announced that MythBusters would air its 14th and final season in 2016. The show aired its final episode on March 6, 2016. On March 25, Discovery's sister network, Science, announced its intention of continuing the series with new hosts, to be chosen in a reality show currently in development by the network.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.08.19, 16:22:15
On October 21, 2015, it was announced that MythBusters would air its 14th and final season in 2016. The show aired its final episode on March 6, 2016. On March 25, Discovery's sister network, Science, announced its intention of continuing the series with new hosts, to be chosen in a reality show currently in development by the network.
Awww.. :'(
With hhop being but a rumour and a myth, claiming to convert energy from the gravitational field into electrical energy at COP>1, do you think we could interest Adam and Jamie in a one off comeback special.. ?
Plans for first space nation 'Asgardia' revealed, citizenship applications opened
https://www.rt.com/viral/362555-plans-first-space-nation/
Get ready to pack your bags because there's a new nation in town, or rather in space. Scientists have unveiled plans for "Asgardia", a floating nation and defender of the Earth with room for 100,000 citizens.
Dr Igor Ashurbeyli of the Aerospace International Research Center announced the plans in Paris, saying Asgardia aims to "flourish free from the tight restrictions of state control that currently exist." He announced the plans on the same day he became chairman of UNESCO's Science of Space committee.
Ashurbeyli said their mission is to act as guardians of the Earth, and the "nation" would first get to work building a protective shield to protect Earth from debris, asteroids and coronal mass ejections from the sun.
Currently all space programs, including commercial, must be supervised and authorised by a government on Earth. When applications for Asgardian citizenship goes above 100,000 they can apply to the UN for the status of state, according to Ashurbeyli.
An online registration form is welcoming applications for citizenship, with the first 100,000 qualifying for automatic citizenship. No word yet on how people can become citizens in the future, or whether there'll be a wall built between Asgardia and Earth.
Named after the city in the sky ruled by Odin in Norse mythology, Asgardia is the work of a team of scientists and legal experts who claim it will someday become a member of the United Nations with its own flag and national anthem.
Asgardia gets underway in late 2017, when the team plan to launch a satellite into a low-Earth orbit. Until then we'll have to stay here on boring old Earth.
If you want Asgardian citizenship I would hurry.. places going fast! 10,631 Asgardians so far and counting! O0
http://asgardia.space/citizenship
hhop gen 4 update 2 is presented as a thought experiment, one of my favourites!
It is possible to recreate the system on the left of the drawing if the piston is perfectly balanced around the zero point of the secondary boundary plane, the apparent weight of the piston will be absorbed equally and oppositely, within the scalar field of the fluid it is floated in.
The central system in the drawing cannot be balanced, the high density low volume solid will seek gpe equivalence and therefore rest at the normal plane in the sump of the system, pumping water out of the backpressure restrictor outlet nozzle in order to reach static equilibrium.
The third system on the right of the drawing simply asks you to substitute a solid mass weight for a liquid mass weight, within the hollow piston. The defining characteristic of this substitution is the information that is permitted to communicate across the secondary boundary plane.
A body defined as a vector weight force (within a specific part of the overall system) must not be allowed to transition to a different state where it's weight force becomes scalar pressure (within a specific fluid) and is normalised at the primary boundary plane instead of the secondary boundary plane along the mating face of the hollow piston.
With a hhop gen 4 lower liquid chamber static operating pressure of 3000 psi there will be 3k psi of backpressure trying to push your valve open.. if it succeeds the normally dominant system takes over and the effect vanishes and resets to starting conditions.. which is a relatively negatively buoyant system hence the ability of hhop for an automatic system reset at the end of the working 1/2 cycle.
Gravitational field
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field
In physics, a gravitational field is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body.[1] Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena, and is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force between point masses. Following Newton, Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid, and since the 19th century explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms of a field model, rather than a point attraction.
In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the particles distort spacetime via their mass, and this distortion is what is perceived and measured as a "force". In such a model one states that matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of spacetime,[2] and that there is either no gravitational force,[3] or that gravity is a fictitious force.[4]
Gravitational wave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_wave
Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. The possibility of gravitational waves was discussed in 1893 by Oliver Heaviside using the analogy between the inverse-square law in gravitation and electricity.[1] In 1905 Henri Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves (ondes gravifiques) emanating from a body and propagating at the speed of light as being required by the Lorentz transformations.[2] Predicted in 1916[3][4] by Albert Einstein on the basis of his theory of general relativity,[5][6] gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation, a form of radiant energy similar to electromagnetic radiation.[7] Gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newton's law of universal gravitation, since it is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions propagate at infinite speed.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about objects such as neutron stars and black holes, events such as supernovae, and processes including those of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.
Various gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction or in operation, such as Advanced LIGO which began observations in September 2015.[8]
Potential sources of detectable gravitational waves include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors.[9][10][11] On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced.[12][13][14]
Spacetime
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime
In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single interwoven continuum. Since 300 BCE, the spacetime of our universe has historically been interpreted from a Euclidean space perspective, which regards space as consisting of three dimensions, and time as consisting of one dimension, the "fourth dimension". By combining space and time into a single manifold called Minkowski space in 1908, physicists have significantly simplified a large number of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.10.18, 18:04:41
hhop gen 4 update 2 is presented as a thought experiment, one of my favourites!
Coming on this rather late I don't have the knowledge to know what to look for..
If I wanted to build a table top model could you direct me to some of the relevant posts please. Is there a plan page or pictures of a model?
And briefly, how does it work, in terms I might understand?
Thanks
Ron
That is a fair position Ron, deserves a reasonable answer. Ernie made a similar request recently in another thread so let's have a go..
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqBq5aTvCOE&feature=youtu.be
This video was made by Graham a little over a year ago and is a record of his hands on experience with a hhop gen 2, the last one I built and donated to his museum collection.
The outlet pipe is clear and you can clearly see the air / water (liquid / gas) interface boundary layer. The surface of the water for simplicity sake as we tend to ignore the air.. becuase we cannot see it.. hence hhop gen 4 update 2 background is green, allowing you to notice that there are two working fluids in an equivalent balance interacting at the boundary plane. Phew.. take a breath..
Now we have a look at the displacement chamber and notice we have a fully bled starting condition, so there is no gas / liquid boundary plane, but there is a solid liquid boundary plane but we typically don't notice it.
When we use electricity in the hho cell we create a phase transition of liquid to gas and a gas bubble appears in the top of the displacement chamber. It is at the top because gas is less dense than liquid and so displaces the liquid below it and pumps it out of the outlet tube. If there is no outlet tube the gas will continue to be created in a fixed volume and therefore pressure will increase until the solid breaks and allows equalisation with the atmospheric pressure (a gas at 15psi, 1 Bar). So information about the inside of the system is allowed to cross the solid boundary plane and the system equalises see.. ;)
hhop gen 3 replaces the gas / liquid boundary plane interface in the hhop gen 2 displacement chamber with a solid.. and adds a switch to allow or deny the information state of the system to cross the boundary plane..
With the ability of hhop gen 3 to create gas pressure and displace a liquid (do work on) you can make the density of the volume of space defined.. a variable.. O0
hhop gen 4 removes the hho cell and therefore the piston boundary plane becomes a constant density with a constant relative buoyancy and you switch between two frames of reference which are both unbalanced around the zero point, one a little bit.. one a lot! ;D
hhop gen 5 is an untested hypothesis that potentially could remove the large space problem (footprint) of hhop gen 4 by rotating the system and making the 'g' force a variable within a system that is defined by a significant gravitational gradient. It attempts to use hhop gen 4 based on Newtons significant mass in a model defined by Einstein within relativity.
hhop gen 6 is based on hhop gen 3 and 4 technology and returns to it's roots.. the working principle of the Pulsometer pump.. an external combustion engine. Heat and boiling phase change to create gas within a cryogenic liquid is the model, replacing the electrolytic gas created by electrolysis..
That's a bit of background to help you decide where on the hhop tree you are.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.10.30, 10:42:46
That is a fair position Ron, deserves a reasonable answer. Ernie made a similar request recently in another thread so let's have a go..
snip
That's a bit of background to help you decide where on the hhop tree you are.
Thanks for that! Yes, I am lying on the ground looking up, :o This is going to take a bit of study
Ron
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.10.30, 10:42:46
If there is no outlet tube the gas will continue to be created in a fixed volume and therefore pressure will increase until the solid breaks and allows equalisation with the atmospheric pressure (a gas at 15psi, 1 Bar). So information about the inside of the system is allowed to cross the solid boundary plane and the system equalises see.. ;)
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.03.08, 16:19:58
Been chasing down leaks all day and in the video a leak developed at around 4 - 5 bar but the rate of fluid loss was not enough to impede the aim of achieving snapvalve triggering pressure at 6 bar.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5CvlEwxFhg&feature=youtu.be
The valve triggers at 07:17 in the video and a jet of hho can be seen exhausted from the radial port demonstrating impressive stability at a respectable pressure, showing promise for higher load tests later.
The gauge needle falls back to 2 bar showing the pressure loss was entirely due to gas exhaust, and further confirming lack of flame at outlet by not having a zero gauge reading, starting conditions if vacuum was present in cycle.
Encouraging results as 87 psi gives us 200 foot of head with a lot of headroom available in the gas stable pressure.. maybe.. the snapvalve can go up to 200 psi incrementally so I hope ignition can be achieved at a higher pressure.. ?
http://www.convertunits.com/from/psi/to/foot+of+head
Practical uses for pressure head
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_head
Fluid flow is measured with a wide variety of instruments. The venturi meter in the diagram below shows two columns of a measurement fluid at different heights. The height of each column of fluid is proportional to the pressure of the fluid. To demonstrate a classical measurement of pressure head, we could hypothetically replace the working fluid with another fluid having different physical properties.
For example, if the original fluid was water and we replaced it with mercury at the same pressure, we would expect to see a rather different value for pressure head. In fact the specific weight of water is 9.8 kN/m3 and the specific weight of mercury is 133 kN/m3. So, for any particular measurement of pressure head, the height of a column of water will be about 13.6 times taller than a column of mercury would be (133/9.8 = 13.6). So if a water column meter reads "13.6 cm H2O", then an equivalent measurement is "1.00 cm Hg".
This example demonstrates why there is some confusion surrounding pressure head and its relationship to pressure. Scientists frequently use columns of water (or mercury) to measure pressure (manometric pressure measurement), since for a given fluid, pressure head is proportional to pressure. Measuring pressure in units of "mm of mercury" or "inches of water" makes sense for instrumentation, but these raw measurements of head must frequently be converted to more convenient pressure units using the equations above to solve for pressure.
In summary pressure head is a measurement of length, which can be converted to the units of pressure (force per unit area), as long as strict attention is paid to the density of the measurement fluid and the local value of g.
Implications for gravitational anomalies on ψ
We would normally use pressure head calculations in areas in which g is constant. However, if the gravitational field fluctuates, we can prove that pressure head fluctuates with it.
If we consider what would happen if gravity decreases, we would expect the fluid in the venturi meter shown below to withdraw from the pipe up into the vertical columns. Pressure head is increased.
In the case of weightlessness, the pressure head approaches infinity. Fluid in the pipe may "leak out" of the top of the vertical columns (assuming p > 0).
To simulate negative gravity, we could turn the venturi meter shown above upside down. In this case gravity is negative, and we would expect the fluid in the pipe to "pour out" the vertical columns. Pressure head is negative (assuming p > 0).
If p < 0 and g > 0, we observe that the pressure head is also negative, and the ambient air is sucked into the columns shown in the venturi meter above. This is called a siphon, and is caused by a partial vacuum inside the vertical columns. In many venturis, the column on the left has fluid in it ( ψ > 0), while only the column on the right is a siphon ( ψ < 0).
If p < 0 and g < 0, we observe that the pressure head is again positive, predicting that the venturi meter shown above would look the same, only upside down. In this situation, gravity causes the working fluid to plug the siphon holes, but the fluid does not leak out because the ambient pressure is greater than the pressure in the pipe.
The above situations imply that the Bernoulli equation, from which we obtain static pressure head, is extremely versatile.
This paper is not bad for some light reading O0
http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/mechanical_engineering/Quantum_Mechanics_Pressure.pdf
"According to the theory of general relativity, pressure increases the strength of a gravitational field (see stress–energy tensor) and so adds to the mass-energy cause of gravity. This effect is unnoticeable at everyday pressures but is significant in neutron stars, although it has not been experimentally tested."
Stress–energy tensor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%E2%80%93energy_tensor
The stress–energy tensor (sometimes stress–energy–momentum tensor or energy–momentum tensor) is a tensor quantity in physics that describes the density and flux of energy and momentum in spacetime, generalizing the stress tensor of Newtonian physics. It is an attribute of matter, radiation, and non-gravitational force fields. The stress–energy tensor is the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity.
Pneumatic Air Cylinders - Force Exerted
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pneumatic-cylinder-force-d_1273.html
Hydraulic Force
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/hydraulic-force-calculator-d_1369.html
Pascal's Laws
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pascal-laws-d_1274.html
Pascal's Laws relates to pressures in fluids - in liquid or gaseous state:
if the weight of a fluid is neglected the pressure throughout an enclosed volume will be the same
the static pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions
the static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid
The pressure acting on both pistons in a hydraulic jack lift is equal..
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.11.16, 16:37:54
if the weight of a fluid is neglected the pressure throughout an enclosed volume will be the same
O0
To define F1 begin with it's shape, a cylinder:
Cylinder (geometry)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)
Volume
If the cylinder has a radius r and length (height) h, then its volume is given by
V = πr2h
The volume is occupied by a Mass which has a Weight and is therefore a Force:
Mass and Weight - the Gravity Force
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/mass-weight-d_589.html
Mass and Weight are two often misused and misunderstood terms in mechanics and fluid mechanics.
The fundamental relation between mass and weight is defined by Newton's Second Law. Newton's Second Law can be expressed as
F = m a
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object, being directly related to the number and type of atoms present in the object. Mass does not change with a body's position, movement or alteration of its shape, unless material is added or removed.
an object with mass 1 kg on earth would have the same mass of 1 kg on the moon
Mass is a fundamental property of an object, a numerical measure of its inertia and a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object.
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass. The generic expression of Newton's Second Law (1) can be transformed to express weight as a force by replacing the acceleration - a - with the acceleration of gravity - g - as
Fg = m ag
Density
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity-d_290.html
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.
Density can be expressed as
ρ = m / V
= 1 / ν
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
Specific Weight (or force per unit volume) can be expressed as
γ = ρ ag
and just for fun contemplate swapping the working liquid fluid, which alters the density per unit volume of space, changing the force and therefore the maximum energy that can be extracted from that space.
Liquids - Densities
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/liquids-densities-d_743.html
Densities of some common liquids - acetone, beer, oil, water and more O0
You can't squash a liquid!
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/hydraulics.html
Why does water squirt so fast from a syringe? You can't really compress a liquid at all, so if you force the water up through the wide part of the syringe by pushing hard on the plunger at the bottom, where's that water going to go? It has to escape through the top. Since the top is much narrower than the bottom, the water emerges in a high-speed jet. Hydraulics runs this process in reverse to produce lower speed but more force, which is used to power heavy-duty machines. It's exactly the same in a water pistol, which is effectively just a syringe shaped like a gun.
Hydraulics in theory
Turn a water pistol on its end and this is (crudely simplified) what's going on inside:
When you press on the trigger (shown in red), you apply a relatively large force that moves the trigger a short distance. Because the water won't squeeze into a smaller space, it gets forced through the body of the pistol to the narrow nozzle and squirts out with less force but more speed.
Now suppose we could make a water pistol work in reverse. If we could shoot liquid into the nozzle at high speed, the water would flow the opposite way and we'd generate a large upward force on the trigger. If we scaled our water pistol up many times, we could generate a big enough force to lift things. This is exactly how a hydraulic ram or jack works. If you squirt fluid through a narrow tube at one end, you can make a plunger rise slowly, but with a lot of force, at the other end:
The science behind hydraulics is called Pascal's principle. Essentially, because the liquid in the pipe is incompressible, the pressure must stay constant all the way through it, even when you're pushing it hard at one end or the other. Now pressure is defined as the force acting per unit of area. So if we press down with a small force on a small area, at the narrow end of the tube on the left, there must be a large force acting upward on the larger area piston on the right to keep the pressure equal. That's how the force becomes magnified.
Water gun
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_gun
Historically, water guns were made of metal and used rubber squeeze bulbs to load and propel water through a nozzle[1]
Hybrid systems
There are also a number of water guns that employ a variety of pressurization systems to propel water.
hhop gen 1 and 2 are examples in this category!
Nozzle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nozzle
A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of its pressure energy.
Not Pascals Law then..
MERCURY in a SQUIRT GUN?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vWraa6-qicM
We put over 2lbs. of the liquid metal mercury inside a squirt gun. Will it even work? Many viewers have asked me to shoot Hg out of a squirt gun. I wasn't sure if it would work since it takes a LOT of vacuum to even lift it. However, I found a squirt gun where the pump unit was low enough that it would be covered completely by the mercury. It took just a little more effort to squeeze it than water. What's neat is the stream came out in hundreds of individual, tiny droplets. Each droplet was like a heavy little liquid bullet and had a lot of energy.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2016.11.17, 18:49:33
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass. The generic expression of Newton's Second Law (1) can be transformed to express weight as a force by replacing the acceleration - a - with the acceleration of gravity - g - as
Fg = m ag
hhop gen 4 applies g to express a, via the leveraged hydraulic press followed by the water pistol, converting a static scalar potential to an accelerating vector mass.. then to electricity! before dropping back into the system as gpe to affect the static system in real time and therefore transform constants into variable gradients mid-cycle.. decades of fun fella's O0
Define P1
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pasc.html
The only thing left to define is P2 and F2.
P2 is easy as it is just the applied pressure of the weight on the piston plus the static pressure of 1.5psi per metre height.
F2 is easy too.. there is not an F2.. what you have instead is an acceleration of the liquid in the narrow outlet tube.
When a fluid is accelerated like this the acceleration comes at the expense of pressure energy. You can see this in the mercury squirt gun video, each distinct droplet forms as the pressure behind it drops to zero and it separates from the flow.
http://www.online-calculators.co.uk/volumetric/cylindervolume.php
http://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/geometry-plane/circle.php
So for an upper chamber of dimensions 1 metre diameter and 1 metre height we would have a liquid volume of 3.14 cubic metres. If it's water the density will be 1 and so that equals 3140 litres which equals 3140Kg.
P=F/A
The area of the piston face is 0.785 square meters.
Pressure in the lower chamber is therefore 5.689psi
http://www.sensorsone.com/force-and-area-to-pressure-calculator/
A 1 to 1 ratio therefore provides only a small pressure difference on the large side of the piston. If there is leakage past the piston seals to atmosphere the system pressure will equalise and nothing will happen..
If you now change the ratio of your piston, for example use a 1 inch square piston in the lower chamber and you get 6922.5psi which would probably destroy your water wheel in short order! :)
With a 0.1 square meter piston pressure would be 44.66psi which once you have paid the 1.5psi per meter to raise water in the narrow vertical outlet tube you would still have probably around 40psi to do work on your water wheel, this is well within the realm of micro hydro.
You should now be able to leverage Pascal's principle and produce a pressure gradient across the system that will do work.
A simple concept drawing of a small family hhophouse complex.
The hhop electricity generator continuous power output is directly related to it's volume and defines the space required for it's footprint.
A living area is designed to sit on top of the generator room, but below ground level.
Above ground a Hobbit style home sits inside a bio dome that acts as a greenhouse, maintaining a nice warm mediterranean climate perfect for growing food on the roof.
Modern insulation and energy management systems could make a nice and cosy self powered home!
How much electricity does a home use?
https://www.ovoenergy.com/guides/energy-guides/how-much-electricity-does-a-home-use.html
Ever wondered how much electricity a home uses? How your home compares, or what the major uses of electricity are? Then this guide will be handy.
In it, we'll look at how much electricity the average home uses in the UK, how that compares to different countries around the world, and what the major uses of electricity are in the home. We'll also talk you through how much electricity different appliances use, as well as what affects those figures.
Household electricity use in the UK dropped under 4,000kWh for the first time in decades in 2014. At an average of 3,940kWh per home, this was about 20% higher than the global average for electrified homes of 3,370kWh.
Biosphere 2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_2
Biosphere 2 is an Earth systems science research facility located in Oracle, Arizona. It has been owned by the University of Arizona since 2011. Its mission is to serve as a center for research, outreach, teaching, and lifelong learning about Earth, its living systems, and its place in the universe. It is a 3.14-acre (1.27-hectare)[1] structure originally built to be an artificial, materially closed ecological system, or vivarium. It remains the largest closed system ever created.[2]
Biosphere 2 was originally meant to demonstrate the viability of closed ecological systems to support and maintain human life, defining mission one as eight humans for two years. Additionally, it served to explore the web of interactions within life systems in a structure with five areas based on biomes, and an agricultural area and human living and working space to study the interactions between humans, farming, and technology with the rest of nature. It also explored the use of closed biospheres in space colonization, and allowed the study and manipulation of a biosphere without harming Earth's. Its five biome areas were a 1,900 square meter rainforest, an 850 square meter ocean with a coral reef, a 450 square meter mangrove wetlands, a 1,300 square meter savannah grassland, a 1,400 square meter fog desert, a 2,500 square meter agricultural system, a human habitat, and a below-ground infrastructure. Heating and cooling water circulated through independent piping systems and passive solar input through the glass space frame panels covering most of the facility, and electrical power was supplied into Biosphere 2 from an onsite natural gas energy center.[3]
Biosphere 2 was only used twice for its original intended purposes as a closed-system experiment: once from 1991 to 1993, and the second time from March to September 1994. Both attempts, though heavily publicized, ran into problems including low amounts of food and oxygen, die-offs of many animal and plant species, squabbling among the resident scientists and management issues.
Space colonization
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_colonization
Space colonization (also called space settlement, or extraterrestrial colonization) is permanent human habitation off the planet Earth.
Many arguments have been made for and against space colonization.[1] The two most common in favor of colonization are survival of human civilization and the biosphere in case of a planetary-scale disaster (natural or man-made), and the vast resources in space for expansion of human society. The most common objections to colonization include concerns that the commodification of the cosmos may be likely to enhance the interests of the already powerful, including major economic and military institutions, and to exacerbate pre-existing detrimental processes such as wars, economic inequality, and environmental degradation.[2][3]
No space colonies have been built so far. Currently, the building of a space colony would present a set of huge technological and economic challenges. Space settlements would have to provide for nearly all (or all) the material needs of hundreds or thousands of humans, in an environment out in space that is very hostile to human life. They would involve technologies, such as controlled ecological life support systems, that have yet to be developed in any meaningful way. They would also have to deal with the as-yet unknown issue of how humans would behave and thrive in such places long-term. Because of the present cost of sending anything from the surface of the Earth into orbit (around $2,500 per-pound to orbit, expected to further decrease)[4] a space colony would currently be a massively expensive project.
There are yet no plans for building space colonies by any large-scale organization, either government or private. However, many proposals, speculations, and designs for space settlements have been made through the years, and a considerable number of space colonization advocates and groups are active. Several famous scientists, such as Freeman Dyson, have come out in favor of space settlement.[5]
On the technological front, there is ongoing progress in making access to space cheaper (reusable launch systems could reach $10 per-pound to orbit)[6] and in creating automated manufacturing and construction techniques.
"I know some of you who will dig that. Oh, the humanity!"
http://www.underground-homes.com/
Frame of reference
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Reference+frame+(physics)
1. A set of coordinate axes in terms of which position or movement may be specified or with reference to which physical laws may be mathematically stated. Also called reference frame.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference
In physics, a frame of reference (or reference frame) consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of physical reference points that uniquely fix (locate and orient) the coordinate system and standardize measurements.
In n dimensions, n+1 reference points are sufficient to fully define a reference frame. Using rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates, a reference frame may be defined with a reference point at the origin and a reference point at one unit distance along each of the n coordinate axes.
In Einsteinian relativity, reference frames are used to specify the relationship between a moving observer and the phenomenon or phenomena under observation. In this context, the phrase often becomes "observational frame of reference" (or "observational reference frame"), which implies that the observer is at rest in the frame, although not necessarily located at its origin. A relativistic reference frame includes (or implies) the coordinate time, which does not correspond across different frames moving relatively to each other. The situation thus differs from Galilean relativity, where all possible coordinate times are essentially equivalent.
Different aspects of "frame of reference"
The need to distinguish between the various meanings of "frame of reference" has led to a variety of terms. For example, sometimes the type of coordinate system is attached as a modifier, as in Cartesian frame of reference. Sometimes the state of motion is emphasized, as in rotating frame of reference. Sometimes the way it transforms to frames considered as related is emphasized as in Galilean frame of reference. Sometimes frames are distinguished by the scale of their observations, as in macroscopic and microscopic frames of reference.[1]
In this article, the term observational frame of reference is used when emphasis is upon the state of motion rather than upon the coordinate choice or the character of the observations or observational apparatus. In this sense, an observational frame of reference allows study of the effect of motion upon an entire family of coordinate systems that could be attached to this frame. On the other hand, a coordinate system may be employed for many purposes where the state of motion is not the primary concern. For example, a coordinate system may be adopted to take advantage of the symmetry of a system. In a still broader perspective, the formulation of many problems in physics employs generalized coordinates, normal modes or eigenvectors, which are only indirectly related to space and time. It seems useful to divorce the various aspects of a reference frame for the discussion below. We therefore take observational frames of reference, coordinate systems, and observational equipment as independent concepts, separated as below:
- An observational frame (such as an inertial frame or non-inertial frame of reference) is a physical concept related to state of motion.
- A coordinate system is a mathematical concept, amounting to a choice of language used to describe observations.[2] Consequently, an observer in an observational frame of reference can choose to employ any coordinate system (Cartesian, polar, curvilinear, generalized, ...) to describe observations made from that frame of reference. A change in the choice of this coordinate system does not change an observer's state of motion, and so does not entail a change in the observer's observational frame of reference. This viewpoint can be found elsewhere as well.[3] Which is not to dispute that some coordinate systems may be a better choice for some observations than are others.
- Choice of what to measure and with what observational apparatus is a matter separate from the observer's state of motion and choice of coordinate system.
The Solar Sunflower: Harnessing the power of 5,000 suns
https://arstechnica.co.uk/science/2015/08/the-solar-sunflower-harnessing-the-power-of-5000-suns/
The Solar Sunflower uses this exact same cooling technology—but instead of computer chips, those microfluidic slices of silicon are stuck to the backside of those gallium-arsenide photovoltaic cells. The cooling system ensures that the GaAs efficiently converts photons into electrons, while at the same time whisking away the thermal energy of 5,000 suns. It's pretty cool, to be honest. Or hot. Or something.
The end result is a device that produces about 12kW of electricity, along with 21kW of thermal energy (with water temperatures up to 90°C). Neither Airlight or IBM would reveal the exact pricing of a single Sunflower, but the fully installed cost will likely be in the tens-of-thousands-of-pounds range—and that's just the first caveat of many.
For a start, concentrated solar power only works with direct sunlight: the reflectors need to be pointed directly at the sun, and anything less than totally clear skies will significantly reduce power generation. The Sunflower has some control software that automatically tracks the sun, but IBM gave me a distinct "no comment" when I petulantly probed them about their ability to rid the world of clouds.
hhop gen 4 is starting to look pretty good right about now.. O0
The Coming Age of Cis-lunar and Deep Space Power
http://www.alpf.org/research/coming-age-cis-lunar-deep-space-power/
Before exploring the idea of deep space reachback, it is important to understand "lagrangian" points ("also lagrange points, L-points (L1-L5), or libration points"[45]). "The lagrangian points.... are the five positions in an orbital configuration where a small object affected only by gravity can theoretically be stationary relative to two larger objects."[46] "They are essentially points of equal gravity between two celestial bodies."[47] As an example, L1 is that point which lies on the Sun side of Earth on a straight line between the Sun and Earth. Intuitively, L1 is closer to Earth than the Sun due to their relative masses (see figure 1). However, contrary to one of the definitions presented above, lagrangian points are not at all theoretical.
"Lagrangian points have been of particular interest to astronomers for years. Of particular interest is point L2 which lies on a line similar to L1, only on the shaded side of Earth well beyond the Moon. L2 is both clean [shielded from most radiation] and cool, the ideal position for an advanced telescope. Therefore, this position provides a solution for some of the major problems in space, mainly radiation and heat."
hhop gen 7
Rudolph Diesel and the diesel engine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IjNlUhmJTdw
hhop gen 3 exploits the ability to change the internal density of a body.
hhop gen 4 exploits the ability to switch frame of reference of a mass system to create a gravitational work potential.
hhop gen 5 takes this system and rotates it about a point. Static gravitational reference still applies (minimised in horizontal plane) but can be overcome by acceleration exceeding G=1.
hhop gen 6 asks you to replace the electrolysis model of matter conversion of liquid water to hho gas used in hhop gen 3 with the cryogenic model using thermal energy (boil a cold liquid) to phase transition through the second and third states of matter. (Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma)
hhop gen 7 seeks to create a cryogenic perpetual engine system that combines the operating principles of hhop gen's 1 through 6 to extract energy from applied volume space.
hhop gen 2 uses the combustion event of hho generated by DC electrolysis to accelerate a water slug.
Heat is generated during this process and is treated as waste, establishing environmental energy equilibrium.
Interestingly the straight DC hhop gen 2 can be run in thermal input mode and use a steam pulse to accelerate a water slug instead.
Potentially both can be used together in the same combustion event at high enough voltages to dielectrically breakdown the water vapour doped with hho, in the combustion chamber.
hhop gen 6 is purely devoted to thermal input energy to boil a cold fluid, hhop gen 2 steam variant boils an ambient fluid.
hhop gen 7 sleeves hhop gen 6 around hhop gen 2 in an axial flow design. The waste heat of hhop gen 2 is the primary thermal input energy to drive hhop gen 6.
hhop gens 3 and 4 and 5 couple hhop gen 7 to external frames of reference.
If 1 hhop can be definitively defined as energy extracted from unit volume space, it is a stable baseline.
Energy Currency
http://www.theperfectcurrency.org/main-energy-currency/energy-currency
Towards a Perfect Currency
Environmentalists measure in real physical units, not monetary units. Money was developed to facilitate the trade of disparate real goods across a broad range of distances where direct exchange of goods was impractical. But money has many shortcomings in representing the full real wealth creation process and assets especially over time. Environmentalists have waited patiently for the commercial economics side of the real wealth creation process to develop monetary measurements which will capture the stocks and flows of environmental processes and non-renewable resource assets.
Without such common measurements, no broad based and unified initiatives on our planets many environmental challenges can easily take place. There will continue to be strong resistance from the commercial economics sector to any environmental sector efforts to make radical policy changes based on factors which do not show up in their monetary based accounting system.
If we wait for commercial economists to develop a unit of measure which clearly represents all processes, we will wait in vain as it is not in the interests of the finance sector to change. It is up to the science community to provide a monetary basis which will adequately represent both human and natural processes.
Fortunately there is now an opportunity to combine the real wealth creation sectors demand for a representative currency with the need of the commercial economics sector to change the currency used as the basis for international trade.
As the international standard of commerce, the American dollar has had its day.
The proposal by Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of China's central bank, in March 2009, to establish an international financial reserve currency based on a basket of national currencies is only the start of the process to replace the US dollar as the medium of trade and finance.
But a basket based currency, even if it is more stable, also adds more complexity. It is still based on printed money valuations and incorporates all of the other weaknesses inherent in currencies which are not hard asset based.
Even though the Chinese proposal was widely rejected, the need for a stable international trading currency is clear and is the subject of ongoing discussion. But why settle for another fabricated currency? The opportunity exists to advance to a real and stable standard.
Upon which bedrock can an upgraded currency be based to facilitate accurate valuations, stability, fluidity to represent any scale of asset or transaction and offer resistance to speculation? Gold is limited by scarcity and scalability. Although it can dampen the gyrations of national currencies, it doesn't represent in and of itself, the real wealth creation process.
There is only one commodity which is universally produced and consumed with both the scale and resolution to represent the full scope of any human endeavour. We already measure it in tremendous detail and it is central to every economy and process.
Energy based currency would represent real wealth creation potential and would not be subject to the shifting valuation issues to which every national currency is prone. Energy represents the value of work already done as well as the potential of work which can be done.
Some 800 years ago, the Mongols avoided inflationary pressures on their currency by performing inventories of their assets and matching the money supply to it. The Mongol empire did not suffer from the boom and bust cycle generated by the currency inflation which has plagued other monetary economies. Energy based currency would eliminate this cycle by representing constant real product and illuminating actual input costs.
Energy underwrites all commercial and environmental activity. It is the most widely measured, consumed and produced commodity on the planet. In contrast to the gold producing club, every nation produces energy from a wide variety of sources.
Energy currency? Fine. But which units should be used? A barrel of oil in raw energy numbers, contains 5.9 million btus, 1729 kilowatt hours, 6.2 billion joules or 1.49 billion calories. Awkward, to say the least. Currently a US dollar (at $50/bbl of oil) translates to about 120,000 btus, 35kw hours, 120 million joules and 30 million calories. Kilowatt hours is the best known and the most widely used measurement.
The closest thing to being a round number while having roughly the same magnitude as the current US dollar would be 100,000 btus or 100 million joules. Will we settle on "beatees", "julies" or "watties" as the base currency unit?
Scientists would help monetary experts decide. That would be a new partnership. The first of many paradigm shifts necessary in the integration of real world physical accounting and the representation of commercial economic activity.
A kilowatt hour (or BTU, joule, calorie) is the same in Canada as it is in Kazakstan. It represents the same potential now as it would have centuries ago or will centuries into the future. As a scientific unit of measure, there will be no speculation about what a kilowatt will be worth in 10 years.
"Speculating", "hedging", "converting", "runs against" - these would be superfluous activities of the past. Energy currency is elemental, timeless and universal; three qualities which arbitrary currencies or other commodity based currencies do not possess.
In moving to energy based currency, we will have made a huge step forward in stabilizing and rationalizing the economic process at every level. And when the technology is ready in 30 or 300 years, we can step easily from energy based currency to energy actually being the currency.
If energy storage technology can be developed to the point at which several thousand kilowatt hours can (safely) be carried on something the size of a credit card, then we will have developed the perfect currency.
Commodities, services and goods will always fluctuate in relation to energy but those fluctuations would be no longer be speculatively driven on the monetary side - they would be real cost and real demand driven. And there would never be a stampede away from energy. To what? Time?
Our current national policy focus on monetary flows is one of the prime reasons for the disconnect between policy makers and environmentalists. The GDP/monetary metric simply does not represent the physical processes or the assets of the real world which environmentalists see as essential, uncounted and rapidly degrading.
Energy currency very readily yields energy accounting which can provide a more comprehensive description of real output and resource consumption. Compared to monetary analysis, it is a 3D catscan for programs associated with alternative energy and carbon emissions. These issues need energy accounting to avoid negative sum game red-herrings like corn ethanol at northern latitudes which can survive only in the fog of our current monetary system.
In contrast to adopting energy currency, the process of dumping the US dollar in favour of a spectrum of other national currencies is a political minefield loaded with huge implications for the many players.
No matter who champions it, no one nation will own energy based money. It will be the first truly international, non-political currency base. No nation will be able to manipulate it to avoid the consequences of its own economic mis-steps or to beggar its neighbours.
The recent Chinese efforts to promote the creation of a new standard for international financial reserves have not produced results although the reasons for the proposal remain obvious and valid. A move to energy based currency offers a graceful and non-political avenue of monetary reform as a logical step forward not an abandonment of a failure.
Despite the rejection of Mr. Zhou's initiative, the ball is still in his court and will remain there until a successor to the US dollar is found.
In the face of rapidly deteriorating environmental conditions as well as the necessity of retooling international finance, change must come to our monetary system. Conversion to an energy standard will take full advantage of this opportunity.
Energy Currency has all of the positive attributes of arbitrary money without many of the large problems. It opens the possibility of addressing environmental problems in a comprehensive fashion - something that baseless currencies cannot do.
Should You Invest in Bitcoin?
http://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2013/05/01/should-you-invest-in-bitcoin
Is this digital currency the wave of the future, or a craze to avoid?
If you get wistful imagining the American penny discontinued, a topic that makes the rounds every once in a while, imagine the thought of getting rid of the penny, nickel, quarter, dollar and the rest of American currency—and using bitcoins instead.
Bitcoins have been around for a few years, but there has been buzz in the mainstream media lately due to the digital currency recently both shooting up and plummeting in value.
It can be hard to comprehend at first, in part because Bitcoin, in upper case, refers to the software code that makes the digital currency and the network that distributes it, and bitcoins, in lowercase, refer to the currency itself. Then there's simply grasping the concept: Although bitcoins have a logo that looks like a coin, you will never actually hold one in your hand. Still, with debit and credit cards and online and mobile banking, a consumer these days could theoretically go weeks, months or perhaps years, if they never tip, without touching actual money.
Some people think bitcoins are the wave of the future, a digital form of money that could someday be a universal form of money that replaces the dollar, euro, yen, rupee and onward along the international currency chain. "If even modestly successful, Bitcoin could wind up being the tipping point of a sea change regarding how we are paid and how we pay for things," says Thomas Way, a computing sciences professor at Villanova University in Villanova, Pa.
Others think its future will fall more along the lines of the recent housing bubble, or even the Beanie Babies craze of the 1990s, when some people bought hundreds and thousands of the stuffed toys, planning to sell them one day to fund their retirement or kids' college education.
"People shouldn't invest in Bitcoin. And I think writing about Bitcoin will cause people to lose more money than if the media simply ignore it," says Peter Cohan, who teaches business strategy at Babson College in Wellesley, Mass., and has a background in management consulting and venture capital.
Bitcoin was created in 2009 as a software code project, with the goal to verify and safeguard financial transactions without the assistance of a centralized bank or government treasury. These digital dollars are "mined," as the lingo goes, involving a complex computer system that creates and verifies bitcoins, which are essentially strings of numbers. Due to the authenticated history attached to this virtual money, counterfeiting is virtually impossible.
Once you have a bitcoin, or some BTC, as more lingo goes, you can give it to someone else—a friend, family member, an online storekeeper—over the Internet. You can also exchange the bitcoin into a dollar, euro, yen, rupee and so on.
Moreover, Bitcoin is modeled after some of the ideas behind gold. For instance, the computer systems that "mine" for bitcoins create new coins every 10 minutes and will continue until the total amount reaches a limit of 21 million bitcoins in the year 2140, a number and year that was chosen by an algorithm. Just as there is a finite, if unknown, amount of gold on the planet, there is, or will be, a finite amount of bitcoins, which makes them valuable.
The fact that a computer algorithm dictated the concept of bitcoins, versus the idea of human beings deciding monetary policy, drives their popularity among many enthusiasts. "The idea behind Bitcoin, the most popular instance of cryptocurrency to date, is generally a good one primarily because of its decentralized nature," Way says. "Democratizing some, and perhaps one day all, of the global financial system by using this decentralized digital-currency approach should have a similar effect on the financial market to what the Internet in general has had on information, communication and entertainment."
Way thinks "cautious adoption is likely," and he is likely to get little argument there. There are probably too many skeptics out there for the general public to embrace bitcoins any time soon. Ian Comisky, a partner at Blank Rome, a multidisciplinary law firm with offices throughout the world, is one of those. He believes consumers could face inadvertent tax fraud by investing in it, mostly because some taxpayers might not realize that you have to report any investments in bitcoins as capital gains.
But he also sees a darker side of Bitcoin. As Comisky points out, the anonymous nature of the digital currency means there is scant evidence that you've used it. With conventional money, Comisky says, "there's a paper trail. You make a deposit, and you have a copy of the item, and the money's in your bank account, and a government agency can subpoena that if they need to."
But with bitcoins, because of the almost anonymous nature of the money, "If you're a bad guy, there are a lot of uses for it. You can use bitcoins for tax evasion, launder money with it or use it for narcotics," Comisky says.
Indeed, last year, the Federal Bureau of Investigation came out with an unclassified report, which was immediately leaked online, asserting that at least one online service, a market place called Silk Road, has taken bitcoins as payment for illegal drugs.
Dodi Glenn, director of AV Labs at ThreatTrack Security, a Clearwater, Fla.-based firm that specializes in helping identify and stop sophisticated malware and cyber attacks, points out another problem. "Bitcoin-targeted malware, like viruses and Trojans, can do several bad things to your PC," Glenn says. "For example, hackers can steal account information, such as your username and password, which gives them access to your Bitcoin wallet. They also can hijack your computer and use it to help spread their Bitcoin-stealing malware to other PCs."
Of course, malware can get access to a bank account, too. But banks will give you your money back. "Bitcoins aren't insured with an agency like FDIC, or with an actual bank," says Glenn.
Even if you're confident you are hack-proof, and you're a perfectly good citizen with no interest in money laundering or narcotics, you may wonder why you'd want to pay for anything with a bitcoin. That's the million-dollar question—sorry, the million-bitcoin question. Right now, you can't buy much with bitcoins. It's estimated that only about 100 retailers throughout the world accept them, all arguably obscure businesses like PhoneSomeone, an Australian telephone wholesaler of second-hand equipment, and Grass Hill Alpacas in Haydenville, Mass.
Still, the appeal for some is that with Bitcoin, you can pay friends and family on the Internet for free (although in some cases, there may be a small fee) and without a lot of hassle, once you have digital money in your Bitcoin online wallet. A friend can scan your cell phone with his cell, or you can touch the two smartphones together, provided they both use Near Field Communication technology, and pay each other that way. In fact, you can pay anyone anywhere in the world, within about 10 minutes, according to Bitcoin's website.
But it may take a while for consumers to get comfortable using bitcoins. For instance, the New York City bar, EVR, recently gained a lot of press for being the first New York bar to accept bitcoins. As CNN reported in mid-April, at its then-current value, a $15 martini cost .08 bitcoin. Wrapping one's head around what would be a fair cost for a purchase with bitcoins may take some time.
As the New York bar scene suggests, some businesses and consumers are embracing bitcoins, as are some investors, who clearly hope they can buy low, or low enough, and sell later. Currently, bitcoins aren't pegged to the dollar or any international currency, and their value fluctuates—sometimes wildly. In the past, it has traded for less than a penny. For a time in 2012, each bitcoin was worth less than $5. As of this writing, the exchange rate for 1 bitcoin is 140 American dollars; by the time you read this, it may well be different. You can find the current exchange rate at bitcoinexchangerate.org.
In other words, this isn't an investment for the cautious investor, or anyone who doesn't have money they can afford to lose; nobody should feel confident about putting their life savings into bitcoins. On the other hand, if digital currency isn't here to stay, it's nonetheless making a valiant attempt. It's worth noting that there are other cryptocurrencies vying to be the next Bitcoin, notably litecoins (www.litecoins.org) and PPCoins (www.ppcoin.org).
For those who are intrigued, investing cautiously in bitcoins seems the way to go for now. And if you're someone like Harlan Platt, finance professor at Northeastern University's D'Amore-McKim School of Business, you shouldn't touch it at all.
"Bitcoins are a bit like pixie dust, the substance that Tinker Bell used," Platt says. "It only exists if you believe it exists. Unlike formal currencies, there is nothing that stands behind them such as the full faith and credit of the United States government. Like other schemes, though, it is somewhat like musical chairs. As long as you're not the last person to sit down, the game is fun. The last person left holding these instruments only has a story to tell and no value."
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.06.23, 00:09:17
Moreover, Bitcoin is modeled after some of the ideas behind gold. For instance, the computer systems that "mine" for bitcoins create new coins every 10 minutes and will continue until the total amount reaches a limit of 21 million bitcoins in the year 2140, a number and year that was chosen by an algorithm. Just as there is a finite, if unknown, amount of gold on the planet, there is, or will be, a finite amount of bitcoins, which makes them valuable.
1 hhop volume operating at 100% mining efficiency would be worth a fixed energy value and available at a consistent rate, forever.
Relationship between mathematics and physics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics
The relationship between mathematics and physics has been a subject of study of philosophers, mathematicians and physicists since Antiquity, and more recently also by historians and educators.[2] Generally considered a relationship of great intimacy,[3] mathematics has already been described as "an essential tool for physics"[4] and physics has already been described as "a rich source of inspiration and insight in mathematics".[5]
In his work Physics, one of the topics treated by Aristotle is about how the study carried out by mathematicians differs from that carried out by physicists.[6] Considerations about mathematics being the language of nature can be found in the ideas of the Pythagoreans: the convictions that "Numbers rule the world" and "All is number",[7][8] and two millennia later were also expressed by Galileo Galilei: "The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics".[9][10]
Before giving a mathematical proof for the formula for the volume of a sphere, Archimedes used physical reasoning to discover the solution (imagining the balancing of bodies on a scale).[11] From the seventeenth century, many of the most important advances in mathematics appeared motivated by the study of physics, and this continued in the following centuries (although, it has already been appointed that from the nineteenth century, mathematics started to become increasingly independent from physics).[12][13] The creation and development of calculus were strongly linked to the needs of physics:[14] There was a need for a new mathematical language to deal with the new dynamics that had arisen from the work of scholars such as Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.[15] During this period there was little distinction between physics and mathematics;[16] as an example, Newton regarded geometry as a branch of mechanics.[17] As time progressed, increasingly sophisticated mathematics started to be used in physics. The current situation is that the mathematical knowledge used in physics is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as in the case of superstring theory.[18]
Philosophical problems
Some of the problems considered in the philosophy of mathematics are the following:
Explain the effectiveness of mathematics in the study of the physical world: "At this point an enigma presents itself which in all ages has agitated inquiring minds. How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" —Albert Einstein, in Geometry and Experience (1921).[19]
Clearly delineate mathematics and physics: For some results or discoveries, it is difficult to say to which area they belong: to the mathematics or to physics.[20]
What is the geometry of physical space?[21]
What is the origin of the axioms of mathematics?[22]
How does the already existing mathematics influence in the creation and development of physical theories?[23]
Is arithmetic a priori or synthetic? (from Kant, see Analytic–synthetic distinction)[24]
What is essentially different between doing a physical experiment to see the result and making a mathematical calculation to see the result? (from the Turing–Wittgenstein debate)[25]
Do Gödel's incompleteness theorems imply that physical theories will always be incomplete? (from Stephen Hawking)[26][27]
Is math invented or discovered? (millennium-old question, raised among others by Mario Livio)[28]
Education
In recent times the two disciplines have most often been taught separately, despite all the interrelations between physics and mathematics.[29] This led some professional mathematicians who were also interested in mathematics education, such as Felix Klein, Richard Courant, Vladimir Arnold and Morris Kline, to strongly advocate teaching mathematics in a way more closely related to the physical sciences.[30][31]
Math: Discovered, Invented, or Both?
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/blogs/physics/2015/04/great-math-mystery/
"The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics to the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve."
Eugene Wigner wrote these words in his 1960 article "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences." The Nobel prize-winning physicist's report still captures the uncanny ability of mathematics not only to describe and explain, but to predict phenomena in the physical world.
How is it possible that all the phenomena observed in classical electricity and magnetism can be explained by means of just four mathematical equations? Moreover, physicist James Clerk Maxwell (after whom those four equations of electromagnetism are named) showed in 1864 that the equations predicted that varying electric or magnetic fields should generate certain propagating waves. These waves—the familiar electromagnetic waves (which include light, radio waves, x-rays, etc.)—were eventually detected by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz in a series of experiments conducted in the late 1880s.
And if that is not enough, the modern mathematical theory which describes how light and matter interact, known as quantum electrodynamics (QED), is even more astonishing. In 2010 a group of physicists at Harvard University determined the magnetic moment of the electron (which measures how strongly the electron interacts with a magnetic field) to a precision of less than one part in a trillion. Calculations of the electron's magnetic moment based on QED reached about the same precision and the two results agree! What is it that gives mathematics such incredible power?
The puzzle of the power of mathematics is in fact even more complex than the above examples from electromagnetism might suggest. There are actually two facets to the "unreasonable effectiveness," one that I call active and another that I dub passive. The active facet refers to the fact that when scientists attempt to light their way through the labyrinth of natural phenomena, they use mathematics as their torch. In other words, at least some of the laws of nature are formulated in directly applicable mathematical terms. The mathematical entities, relations, and equations used in those laws were developed for a specific application. Newton, for instance, formulated the branch of mathematics known as calculus because he needed this tool for capturing motion and change, breaking them up into tiny frame-by-frame sequences. Similarly, string theorists today often develop the mathematical machinery they need.
Passive effectiveness, on the other hand, refers to cases in which mathematicians developed abstract branches of mathematics with absolutely no applications in mind; yet decades, or sometimes centuries later, physicists discovered that those theories provided necessary mathematical underpinnings for physical phenomena. Examples of passive effectiveness abound. Mathematician Bernhard Riemann, for example, discussed in the 1850s new types of geometries that you would encounter on surfaces curved like a sphere or a saddle (instead of the flat plane geometry that we learn in school). Then, when Einstein formulated his theory of General Relativity (in 1915), Riemann's geometries turned out to be precisely the tool he needed!
At the core of this math mystery lies another argument that mathematicians, philosophers, and, most recently, cognitive scientists have had for a long time: Is math an invention of the human brain? Or does math exist in some abstract world, with humans merely discovering its truths? The debate about this question continues to rage today.
Personally, I believe that by asking simply whether mathematics is discovered or invented, we forget the possibility that mathematics is an intricate combination of inventions and discoveries. Indeed, I posit that humans invent the mathematical concepts—numbers, shapes, sets, lines, and so on—by abstracting them from the world around them. They then go on to discover the complex connections among the concepts that they had invented; these are the so-called theorems of mathematics.
I must admit that I do not know the full, compelling answer to the question of what is it that gives mathematics its stupendous powers. That remains a mystery.
Go Deeper
Editor's picks for further reading
NOVA: The Great Math Mystery
Is math invented by humans, or is it the language of the universe? NOVA takes on this question in a new film premiering April 15, 2015 at 9pm on most PBS stations.
NOVA: Describing Nature with Math
How do scientists use mathematics to define reality? And why? Peter Tyson investigates two millennia of mathematical discovery.
The Washington Post: The Structure of Everything
Learn more about the "unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics" in this review of Mario Livio's book "Is God a Mathematician?"
dis·cov·er
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/discover
tr.v. dis·cov·ered, dis·cov·er·ing, dis·cov·ers
1. To notice or learn, especially by making an effort: got home and discovered that the furnace wasn't working.
2. a. To be the first, or the first of one's group or kind, to find, learn of, or observe.
b. To learn about for the first time in one's experience: discovered a new restaurant on the west side.
3. To learn something about: discovered him to be an impostor; discovered the brake to be defective.
4. To identify (a person) as a potentially prominent performer: a movie star who was discovered in a drugstore by a producer.
5. Archaic To reveal or expose.
in·vent
tr.v. in·vent·ed, in·vent·ing, in·vents
1. To produce or contrive (something previously unknown) by the use of ingenuity or imagination.
2. To make up; fabricate: invent a likely excuse.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.06.22, 23:32:10
If 1 hhop can be definitively defined as energy extracted from unit volume space, it is a stable baseline.
INTRODUCING - THE LECTRO!!http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/WRHARTICLES/LECTRO/lectro.php#axzz4sO84shDo
by Michael Rivero
As the world financial markets watch the Plunge Protection Team shovel US taxpayer dollars into the flames of reality, propping up the stock markets in a gravity-defying display (I would bet on gravity to win), it is becoming obvious to all that the debt-based currency system of the private central banks, while quite profitable for the bankers, is a dismal failure for civilization as a whole. Humans have labored under this failed experiment for almost 400 years while the media proclaims this is the only form of banking possible. Leaders who say otherwise are assassinated while nations trying alternatives are invaded. As a means to great wealth for little effort, private central banking using debt-based currency is a marvelous invention, although contrary to the devotees of Adam Smith, this elaborate exercise in personal greed has not advanced civilization along at all. Quite the contrary, any advances made have been in spite of the extreme hindrances and burdens placed on the world at large by the private bankers. Modern economic theory, usually bought and paid for by those bankers, strive to reconcile the revealed dogma with the ever-growing evidence that the system is deeply flawed and should be abandoned. In this, said economists are not unlike students of epicycles, who strove valiantly to reconcile Galileo's observations suggesting a heliocentric solar system with the church's enforced-by-torture geocentric dogma.
The fact is that this model of a private central bank creating money out of thin air to loan to the people and governments was the very economic system this nation fought a revolution to be free of. While our schools teach us of tea parties and stamp acts, they rarely mention the Currency Act any more, even though it was the primary reason for the revolution.
The American colonies issued their own currency, which existed in ample supply to ensure full employment and prosperity for all. But when Ben Franklin described this economic paradise while ambassador to London, the Bank of England panicked! England was even then in the grip of monumental poverty for the masses brought on by the predations of the bankers, and the Bank of England feared that if word of an alterative system reached the people, riots would be the result. So, the Bank of England lobbied King George III to pass the Currency act which ordered the colonists only to use banknotes borrowed at interest from the Bank of England. It took only a few years for this Currency act to reduce the American colonies to the same level of poverty and starvation as their English brethren.
"[It was] the poverty caused by the bad influence of the English bankers on the Parliament which has caused in the colonies hatred of the English and . . . the Revolutionary War." -- Benjamin Franklin
Naturally our schools stopped teaching about the Currency act the same time the Federal Reserve system was brought into being, to obscure the fact that we had all been returned, courtesy of a corrupt Congress and a corrupt President, into the clutches of the very same sort of banker slavery we had fought a war to be free of.
"I am a most unhappy man. I have unwittingly ruined my country. A great industrial nation is now controlled by its system of credit.We are no longer a government by free opinion, no longer a government by conviction and the vote of the majority, but a government by the opinion and duress of a small group of dominant men." -- Woodrow Wilson 1919
More and more citizens everywhere cry for a return to the economic system that worked best for the people. They yearn for a government issued value-based currency such as this nation was started with. But should we return to a gold standard?
Throughout history, many materials have been used as a medium of exchange. Primitive people used shells, Arabs used salt (origin of the expression "the man is worth his salt.") , and during the last Great Depression a town newspaper printed up their own promissory notes good for free advertising in the paper and used them to barter goods in the town. These ad-based currencies came to be more trusted than the US issued dollars! Germany, when freeing itself from the private central bank imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, redeemed their value-based currency in units of labor. The result was the German Miracle that so terrified the private bankers they organized a boycott to destroy the new German economy before other nations decided to copy it.
World War 2 was the result.
More recently, Libya established a state-controlled bank issuing a value-based currency, the Gold Dinar, which was gaining in popularity across Africa. Invasion followed. Even in the United States, we have had three Presidents try to pry the nation's finances back from the grip of the private bankers, Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and John F. Kennedy.
"Gentlemen, I have had men watching you for a long time and I am convinced that you have used the funds of the bank to speculate in the breadstuffs of the country. When you won, you divided the profits amongst you, and when you lost, you charged it to the bank. You tell me that if I take the deposits from the bank and annul its charter, I shall ruin ten thousand families. That may be true, gentlemen, but that is your sin! Should I let you go on, you will ruin fifty thousand families, and that would be my sin! You are a den of vipers and thieves. I intend to rout you out, and by the Eternal God, I will rout you out." -- Andrew Jackson
Of the three, only Andrew Jackson succeeded in shutting down the bank. He is also the only US President to pay off the National Debt completely. There was an attempted assassination shortly afterwards, with a confession that clearly indicated a financial motive for the attempt. Both Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy used Article 1 Section 8 of the Constitution to issue government currency that did not pay interest to the private banks. Both men were assassinated and their interest-free money destroyed. In Kennedy's case, a banker, John J. McCloy, President of the Chase Manhattan Bank and President of the World Bank, was appointed to the Warren Commission that whitewashed the circumstances of the assassination.
So, should we return to the gold standard?
My reply is "no."
To be useful as money, the medium for exchange must be something that is universally agreed upon to have value while at the same time existing in enough supply to prevent manipulation by the money-junkies. In arguing about a new value standard for money one detractor argued that gold was the only possible basis for a new monetary system because only gold was universally valued. Obviously, that is not true. One could walk into any nation carrying a gallon of gasoline and find someone willing to trade for it. So clearly, other mediums of exchange are possible, even if we did not have prior history to assure us if their validity and success.
The problem with gold and silver as mediums of exchange is they exist in too small a quantity relative to the growing population. Gold and silver can be manipulated, hoarded, and shorted, to make the speculators rich at the expense of everyone else. Most of the existing gold and silver are already in the hands of the very same bankers who wrecked our present system, so moving to a gold standard merely trades one form of banker-slavery for another.
What is needed is a medium for exchange that increases in supply right alongside the population itself, in order to maintain stability and constant value.
So, my suggestion is to use electricity as the universal basis for a new value-based money system. For the purposes of discussion I call the new US monetary unit the "Lectro." It is redeemable for one kilowatt hour of electricity. The reason I think this is an idea worth pursuing are as follows.
1. While the US Government will have a motive to create electrical power in order to redeem the tokens (coins) and claim checks (Lectro certificates) issued for commerce, creation of electricity and hence money cannot be monopolized. There is no central issuing authority. Every home can have solar panels generating power to the grid, which is redeemable in Lectro notes. In a way we already do this when we pay for power for paper notes and for those able to sell power back to the utility, trade generated power for notes back. This is simply taking the idea to a national scale and making it the de-fact monetary system. and because everyone can generate electricity, artificial scarcity of supply cannot be created.
2. Because power is now the actual monetary system, this approach encourages efficient (and with the proper tax penalties for pollution) clean power generation as well as conservation at the consumer and factory levels.
3. Nobody can short the money supply because everyone can create their own power and monetize it through the treasury. Runaway inflation is impossible because all the coins and certificates in circulation are tied to the available power grid. As power is created, coins and certificates flow into circulation. As power is used, the coins and certificates are taken out of circulation.
4. In the long term, creation of an energy-based money system will smooth the transition from a human-labor to machine-labor society. At present, human labor precedes all capital, payable in a monetary system that pays primarily for human labor. In switching to a monetary system that pays for machine based power production, we evolve towards a society where machines become the primary creators of capital, and all humans shift towards the demand side of the economy. Instead of creating poverty, the push towards automation creates more wealth.
hhop gen 8 -> 1
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.09.19, 18:50:17
hhop gen 8 -> 1
I did not invent hhop gen 1:
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.03.23, 20:32:34
hho gas detonation water pump device:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c76yT2DslP8
Jump to 09:25 for the important visual data.. Is the majority of the water being pumped in 2009 by the gas creation/bleeding cycle, or is it from the explosion/implosion event ?
What stable pressure before auto ignition occurs can the gas created on demand sustain ? Is this a controllable repeatable phenomena ?
hho was just not a powerful enough fuel to fire a water slug, so I invented hhop gen 2.. which still didn't work and fire a water slug.. so we got hhop gen 3.. etc..
Quote from: evolvingape on 2015.01.08, 17:58:58
hhop V algae ?
hhop gen 1 becomes a viable water slug repulsor when the fuel it needs becomes known, I call this system hhop gen 8. A high efficiency water wheel alternator is utilised to convert the kinetic work done to static electricity potential in another frame of reference.
The US And Russia Agree To Build A Moon-Orbiting Space Station Together
https://www.forbes.com/sites/bridaineparnell/2017/09/28/the-us-and-russia-agree-to-build-a-moon-orbiting-space-station-together/#2a32ea964845
The US and Russia are going to team up for a space station near the Moon that will provide a starting point for future deep space exploration.
NASA and Roscosmos, the respective space agencies, said they had signed an agreement on the "deep space gateway", which for now is still in the planning stages.
The idea of the deep space gateway is to provide a place where astronauts can test the systems needed to go into deep space, including trips to Mars. It will also be a place where astronauts can experience extended time in space, but still be within a few days of planet Earth.
After that, a lunar base could provide a staging area for longer missions. For example, NASA or Roscosmos could send up the supplies needed for long missions in stages and store them at the station, reducing the cost and complexity of blasting off large weights from Earth. This idea of space travel is particularly relevant if and when reusable rockets become the norm.
NASA has previously said that its first exploration around the Moon will happen on the first mission of the Space Launch System rocket and the Orion Spacecraft. The agency is hoping to then have a flight per year to the Moon after the second mission is completed.
The agency is already working on concept studies for a lunar base with industry partners and Roscosmos is preparing to do the same.
"While the deep space gateway is still in concept formulation, NASA is pleased to see growing international interest in moving into cislunar space as the next step for advancing human space exploration," said Robert Lightfoot, NASA's acting administrator at NASA Headquarters in Washington.
"Statements such as this one signed with Roscosmos show the gateway concept as an enabler to the kind of exploration architecture that is affordable and sustainable."
Getting an ambitious project like this one off the ground will require engagement from multiple countries and companies, the agency added. Talks are already ongoing with European, Japanese and Canadian space agencies as well, which have all worked with NASA and Roscosmos on the International Space Station (ISS).
Roscosmos and NASA are working on drawing up common exploration objectives and possible missions that will kick off in the 2020s and plan to build on their experience of operating the ISS together.
Russia has previously talked about plans to send its cosmonauts to the surface of the Moon and build a base there, as well as building another Earth-orbiting station to follow the ISS. But it's unlikely that the country can manage such ambitious goals alone. Right now, NASA uses Russian rockets to fly to the ISS and Russia may well look at this agreement as an opportunity to hitch a ride on NASA's new rockets to the Moon.
Both Russia and the US have also expressed interest in getting to Mars within the next 20 years or so and it's likely that the countries will need to cooperate with each other and further partners to make that happen.
Astronauts Have No Borders
https://intpolicydigest.org/2016/05/20/astronauts-have-no-borders/
Between May 13-18 Bucharest was the 3rd most astronaut-populated place in the world after NASA and Star City in Moscow. 13 astronauts from 9 countries reunited in Bucharest to celebrate the 35th anniversary of the 1st Romanian space flight made by Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu.
On 14 May 1981, two astronauts left platform 14 on Baikonur cosmodrome. One was Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, a young lieutenant of the Romanian army and an engineer who specialized in aeronautics and had scored the highest results among all the non-Soviet astronauts during his training in Star City. The other was Leonid Popov, Soviet cosmonaut, the only one at that time who had hit the record of 185 days spent in space. They flew on Soyuz-40 space mission and docked on Saliut 6 – Saliut T 4 orbital space complex, as part of Interkosmos, a space exploration program of the former USSR which included also 13 non-Soviet astronauts.
"My 35th anniversary is special," says Dumitru-Dorin Prunariu, "because I have managed to bring in Bucharest many astronauts and cosmonauts from 8 countries. Their presence and their statements made here during these days prove that Space is an area of international cooperation for peaceful purposes and an area of people with deep understanding of planet Earth and the need to protect Earth."
All these astronauts have amazing and inspirational stories.
Dumitru – Dorin Prunariu, the first and only Romanian astronaut, currently holds several high positions in the European Space Agency, as deputy-president of the International Relations Committee, and in the UN Space sub-committees in Vienna, as the Committee for Peaceful Use of the Outer Space and the committee for Asteroid Warning.
He is also the president of the European section of the Association of Space Explorers, the astronauts' professional organization that includes 400 astronauts from 37 countries.
Georgi Ivanov is the first Bulgarian astronaut and Aleksandr Alexandrov is the second Bulgarian astronaut. Bertalan Farkas is the first Hungarian astronaut.
The Frenchman Jean-Pierre Haigniére is married to a female astronaut, thus making the world's three couples of astronauts. He can fly any type of plane and he currently serves as advisor to the director of the European Space Agency. When asked what is the life of a "cosmic couple" like, Jean-Pierre Haigniére confesses that they face the same problems as ordinary people and being a space traveller does not help solve problems on Earth.
Michel Tognini , the second French astronaut, is the one who, during his second flight in space on Columbia space shuttle, placed Chandra observatory in orbit. He is currently working in research on planet Mars. When asked what impresses him most about space, he answered: "The Earth as a whole! There is no border. When you see the Earth, you only see the thin atmosphere layer between Earth and the Universe which keeps us alive."
Reinhold Ewald was a member of the second German mission on MIR space station and director of the training and flight center of the European Space Agency. Reinhold also teaches in the University of Stuttgart, and has an inquisitive attitude which he offers through explanations for his undergraduates. He does not lose any opportunity to gather data and information. During visits, he always stays behind to ask and answer questions.
Gerhard Thiele from Germany is currently the head of the Manned Flights Planning Office of the European Space Agency. Gerhard is also thirsty for new information and is always seeking information.
Helen Sharman, the first British female astronaut and the first female astronaut on MIR station, encourages people to follow their dreams. She became an astronaut after answering a contest on the radio and competed with 13,000 candidates. Helen says "in space there is no gender difference and women do not face particular biological challenges, on the contrary, the shorter distance between heart and brain makes it easier for women than for men in space. However, radiation affects humans. On short term, it is easier for women. On longer term, it is thought to affect genes and reproduction."
André Kuipers, the second astronaut from the Netherlands, sends amazing photos from space. He is able to grasp breath-taking details of planet Earth. The photos reflect his love for Earth which is also reflected in his propensity to encourage strong education for the younger generation.
Valeri Korzun, the commander of the astronauts' detachment in Star City in Russia, confesses:"It is not easy to be the commander of Star City – now I have 36 cosmonauts, half of them Heroes of Russia! It is difficult to control this group!" says Valeri and then bursts into laughter. "Before we used to be military, it was easier to control them, now we are civilian and they are spread, not so many remain in Star City when they don't train. I control every step they take, from selection to launch, their training, their personal problems, in a direct relation, no intermediate level. I am their father, I know everything. Once a week we have a meeting with all, otherwise, on one-to-one basis, for exams, training in simulator..."
Richard Richards was a commander in 3 out of 4 space missions on Columbia and Discovery space-shuttles from the USA. He is very modest. He says that he was in command so many times because "NASA was very good to me. My first flight was in March, 1996, right after the loss of Challenger in January, and I tried to help, and NASA appreciated so they put me in command. The biggest challenge as a commander is to assign the crew tasks where their strengths are maximized but since I had a wonderful crew, I didn't have to work so hard, they were all motivated...The only special situation I encountered was on my 3rd flight when I had to land on Edwards Airforce base and there was a cyclone in Southern California, with 400 thunderstorms embedded in it, so Houston said in the last minute: Let's land in Florida! That was an apprehensive situation!" says Richard laughing.
Astronauts may look like ordinary people but they are not.
I noticed that when astronauts are 63-67 years old they climbed 6 floors in a building within 30 seconds. I became more aware of their special characteristics through the way they become informed, corroborate data and react to the unexpected.
Astronauts suggest that the world actually has no borders.
First, many of them speak Russian, the working language on board host space shuttles and space stations where several nationalities work together irrespective of their politics. In the future, many young astronauts will probably speak Chinese.
According to Dumitru – Dorin Prunariu, China has invited other nations to work on its international space station, currently being built, to be launched in 2020, and young European astronauts are currently learning Chinese.
Second, all the astronauts say that they see no borders on Earth but a unified world, fragile, covered only by a thin layer of atmosphere, with lots of threats posed by the Universe, and urge people and leaders to look after it and protect it.
The hhop hybrid with a spring assisted piston potential energy accumulator built inline.
The piston requires that the gas evolved is delivered into the top chamber above it, either inline sleeving (hard) or external delivery (easy), alternatively an NRV (non return valve) could be built into and through the piston.
The spring assist allows energy to be stored to reset the system quickly and assure gas delivered to a hho flame water torch reservoir is above reservoir operating pressure.
A relative vacuum on the water inlet supply line will also be created allowing the chamber to refill for the next pump cycle at a faster than 1 atm rate.
hhop hybrid
Yeah I like this one ;D
The piston is necessary because otherwise the fluids would flow all around the spring, ignoring it, unable to compress it linearly.
This is a nice video showing an impressive flame pressurised to 10 psi:
Extreme HHO 20 plus inch flame
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-clEe9TaEM
"Just playing around today with the torch with a new flash arrestor. 10 psi pressure and a huge pop can eating flame. ( sorry coca-cola can ) One of Justin's flashback arrestors from JDC products as an added measure of safety."
I was playing around at miniaturising the hybrid a few years back, pack them into a manifold block, and run them off a central electrolyser.
If you can recapture the latent heat and use that energy to run your absorption refrigeration system, you get steam distilled drinking water condensate. O0
hhop hybrid automatic snapvalve governor
Make a big difference with little effort. The secret lies in the Pulse.[translation from Vid text]
Rob
I just left this here for a bit [you can remove it immediately if you wish]
Johan 1955 sent it to me today with a comment on perhaps making a water hammer effect with very little energy and a well timed pulse?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FjO3OipwlKc
your thoughts ?
respectfully
Chet
Hi Chet,
The video you posted Johan pointed you towards is on topic so no worries about removal O0
Oscillators are a big subject and essential study, Walter Lewin is a good place to start O0
Lec 05: Coupled Oscillators | 8.03 Vibrations and Waves, Fall 2004 (Walter Lewin)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I5ioTNXEUgs
4. Coupled Oscillators without Damping
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Usm7cWtAbRY
hhop hybrid expansion chambers
I have drawn the full hhop hybrid system for you showing the pressure reduction in stages through utilising the internal volume of each component to act as an expansion chamber for the hho gas.
The first stage pressure reduction is in the snapvalve governor using the dead space that houses the piston return spring. (Hydrogen embrittlement of the spring may be an issue here, epoxy coated magnets not so much)
If you double the volume you halve the gas pressure..
This then proceeds to the flashback arrestor causing another pressure reduction. When the hho reaches it's final destination in the hho flame feed reservoir (the largest volume and therefore lowest pressure) it should be around 1 atm (15 psi).
There is therefore a three stage expansion chamber pressure reduction.. The snapvalve governor, the flashback arrestor and the hho flame feed reservoir.
NRV's in the system assist the flashback arrestor in preventing the hhop cell combusting as well as the hho gas in the other components in the line.
The hhop hybrid with expansion chambers and flashback arrestor can be built all inline and small. Each hhop hybrid cell has a natural electrical resistance (Volt and Amp draw) and can be built into a manifold so that when wired in series and parallel achieves a nice match for the electrical output of your solar array. (like a normal battery cell arrangement)
I favour two hho flame torches on the output of the hho gas feed reservoir because if you cross the streams (ghostbusters!) then should one go out the other should reignite it instantly and automatically!
You can lower pressure in the hho feed reservoir faster by adding additional hho torches, helps you tune the system by removing gas faster from the reservoir. (creates a vacuum when the gas phase transitions to a liquid)
Any questions ?
China to create world's largest floating solar power plant in move to clean energy
https://www.rt.com/business/412771-china-biggest-floating-solar-project/
Construction of the 150 megawatt (MW) power station started in July with a part already connected to the grid, according to the company. The new power plant features solar panels inserted into floats that are fixed on the surface of a lake that formed after a coal mine collapsed.
The entire facility is scheduled to be ready by May 2018. When complete, 150 MW station will be the equivalent of using about 53,000 tons of coal. According to the corporation, nearly 199,500 tons of carbon dioxide emissions will be cut every year.
All very cool stuff! We need to work out how large a solar array we would need to power a decentralised hhophouse running the hhop hybrid, while providing for all survival needs..
150MW's floating in the bathtub....
I see a Hitchcock thriller in the making.
such an endeavor in the US would take a century's worth of approval and paper work and most likely be denied due to some endangered slug or gnat
I experimented with different types of flashback arrestors many years ago but I never could beat the simplicity of a hho bubbler..
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=hho+bubbler
For the hhop hybrid this is my bubbler of choice.
I used the same technique as I used for the bypass tube way back on page one:
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg38990#msg38990
The internal thread allowed me to use a hose nipple to fit a piece of hydraulic hose and run that hose to the bottom of the vertical pipe nipple, which was filled with water, the space above acting as the gas expansion chamber. The external thread allowed the bubbler to be secured to the snapvalve governor exhaust port, and another thread allowed attachment to the hho flame feed reservoir.
As you do not have an electrical circuit in this area (for the bubbler) the use of plastic bushes is not essential to the function. It's a pretty simple assembly but if you need a drawing let me know and I'll knock one up for you. O0
hhop hybrid inline
The hhop hybrid inline is the end of the hhop gen 2 technology tree.
The tubular hho cell has been expanded to include passive (neutral) tubular electrodes with a 1.5mm - 2.0mm annular gap. They have no direct connection to the electrical system but are electrically conductive because of the electrolyte in the annular gap between the tube walls. This increases surface area for electrolysis and hho gas bubble production, and therefore increases the rate of pumping with an increased electricity energy requirement.
The snapvalve governor sets the triggering pressure of the system and the peak pressure achieved in the main pumping chamber. It is a spring preloaded system so it also acts as an NRV preventing potential flashback.
The safety bubbler is integrated inline above the snapvalve governor and the feed tube acts as part of the snapvalve expansion chamber assembly. The annular gap has a small liquid volume and will be pumped out allowing gas bubbles to rise to the final expansion chamber which feeds the hho water flame reservoir.
The main pump piston represents the future development of the technology and is what led to the hhop gen 3. The spring return is replaced by a buoyancy system, requiring a smart valved piston and removing the need for a gas bypass tube integrated into the design.
hhop hybrid inline external gas bypass
The gas bypass tube has been run in an external annular gap between the tube walls, delivering the hho into the dead space between the two pistons.
The change from internal to external gas bypass delivery prevents the need to seal around the bypass tube which is sleeved through the center of your main pump piston on the original inline design.
O0
hhop hybrid inline compact
The compact is a reduced three dimensional footprint version of the hhop hybrid external gas bypass design.
It is possible to further compact this design by sleeving the hho tubular gas cell around the main pump body, inside the safety bubbler.
8)
hhop hybrid inline full compact no gas bypass
The full compact represents the end of the hybrid development line. There are opportunities to further improve the design such as magnetic springs, or float valves to refill your electrolyte from a reservoir..
Moving the hho tubular cell up and sleeving it around the pump removes the need for a gas bypass tube.. and with it the opportunity to play with smart pistons..
Series / Parallel wire the full compacts to your battery energy source to achieve relative 12 Volt performance (car battery), and required gas production rates.
hhop hybrid inline full compact extended bubbler
The bubbler has been extended in an outer sleeve around the electrolysis cell and main pump.
The safety bubbler and snapvalve governor form one sub assembly, the other being the electrolysis cell and main pump. They can be assembled and pressure tested separately and then screwed together and sealed to make a full compact hhop hybrid system.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.20, 11:04:06
hhop hybrid inline full compact extended bubbler
The bubbler has been extended in an outer sleeve around the electrolysis cell and main pump.
The safety bubbler and snapvalve governor form one sub assembly, the other being the electrolysis cell and main pump. They can be assembled and pressure tested separately and then screwed together and sealed to make a full compact hhop hybrid system.
I like that idea Rob O0
Regards
Mike 8)
PS. has the white stuff in your neck of the woods gone?
Yes mate, the snow has gone, taken the snowmen with it! :(
I have drawn a circle around the space between the two pistons, makes sense to have the two sub assemblies mate there.
Raising the tubular hho cell up the design has removed the need for a bypass, but created a problem refilling the electrolyte. As the liquid is converted and moves upwards against gravity within the system it transfers mass out of the system.
When the hho cell was in the liquid sump it was never an issue as it was permanently submerged and under hydrostatic pressure. Now the electrode rings will over time become exposed to a gas atmosphere, and this is undesirable. I have had startup ignitions running 12V and a battery charger, possibly RF ignition ?
If you place a spring preloaded NRV (one way valve) with a cracking pressure 5 to 10 psi below your snapvalve governor pressure, then the final part of the stroke of the pump should open that NRV and refill your electrolysis chamber liquid level. The gas and liquid would attempt to equalise pressure, and the pressure has been created at the top of the gas producing cell, pushing on the piston.
A drawing discussing the problem created by fully vertically compacting the cell design.
The hho reservoir now being liquid isolated will lose mass to gas phase transition, and needs a refill from somewhere.
The pump won't work (cannot pump it's own system), the raised bubbler reservoir might be an option as it is lower pressure and with a larger gravitational potential energy (higher position). This must then itself be filled but there is the option of refilling this from an exterior reservoir.
So now we have a more complicated, self regulating, bypass system that needs designing!
There is the tempting possibility of using the hhop gen 2 combustion to vacuum cycle to suck (draw) water up into the hho cell from a lower feed reservoir.. a true hybrid.. O0
would you consider a group Skye discussion to help some of us understand as well as invite others to learn ?
perhaps a chalk board discussion/teaching time?
walk thru the MO ?
its in your head and on the page in front of me But....
?
with gratitude regardless
Chet
Ps
recent opportunities to spread this tech have risen to the front [in Africa]
Yes if you want we can do a Skype session in the new year.
Everything you need to know is in this thread, it's not new tech but old tech you need to understand.
The basic MO is that electrical energy can be used in a hhop cell (Pulsometer origin) to create Faraday electrolysis and provide for the survival needs of people in an entirely decentralised system. This creates a large pressure increase as the little bit of liquid phase transitions into a gas. As the volume has remained constant this creates an increasing internal pressure on the body.
The gas *must* be delivered into the dead space between the two pistons in the hybrid (the main pump piston and the snapvalve governor). The main pump piston has a resistance set by a spring loaded NRV (cracking pressure). The same can be achieved with an accumulator that would normally require raising the water and storing that energy as gpe.
The liquid is then pumped from the chamber and the volume above the piston is filled with gas at this pressure. The piston then hits mechanical stops which stop the liquid pumping and only builds gas pressure until the snapvalve triggers and evacuates some of the gas into the bubbler expansion chamber. The safety bubbler is self explanatory.
The main pump piston return spring will then return the piston refilling the liquid chamber with water for the next pump, and the cycle repeats. How far your piston returns depends on how much gas was evacuated past the snapvalve piston. It would be preferable to have a complete evacuation of the gas in the pump chamber but for large volumes of gas the snapvalve would need a temporary hold open feature.
Keep the pump volumes small for safety (less compressed gas) and easier chamber evacuation of the gas. This also increases pump cycle rates at the cost of smaller volumes of water pumped each cycle.
Each hhop hybrid acts as an electrical resistor so wire them in series and parallel to achieve the correct Voltage and Amperage required by your power source (solar panel).
The basic idea to this technology is to run on internal system pressure feedback only, but if you do want to add smart switching and valve control you can.. once you understand what you are trying to achieve with each part of the device.
Africa eh.. well they got plenty of sun and lot's of desert.. sounds like an ideal place for a hhophouse! The hhop system is designed to draw sea water, purify it to a potable drinking standard, water your food garden, provide heating, cooking and refrigeration.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.23, 09:06:59
The hhop system is designed to draw sea water, purify it to a potable drinking standard, water your food garden, provide heating, cooking and refrigeration.
The hhop hybrid is designed to use solar energy input and provide the mechanical technology you need to power a hhophouse.
I want to live in one of these basically!
http://uk.businessinsider.com/indoor-rainforest-dubai-green-planet-project-2016-9?r=US&IR=T
O0
Some Aussie's joining in:
http://northcity4.com/our-indoor-forest/
In 2014 Northcity4's Indoor Forest Project was chosen as a finalist in the Bank of Melbourne Local Project competition. Thanks to everyone who voted for us, we were successful in winning $10,000 to realise our dream to create an air-purifying, sustainable, permanent green installation at Northcity4. Our "forest on wheels" is a living work of art, based on NASA's research on houseplants' air-cleansing qualities and on air-quality analysis at NC4. It has been created from locally grown plants and locally built vessels of sustainable materials. All our research and project outcomes will become freely available for other makers as well as the wider community. Keep an eye on this page for updates.
hhop gen 2
http://www.overunityresearch.com/index.php?topic=2288.msg35176#msg35176
Start here, use a liquid piston and a central bypass tube, to deliver the gas to the top of the chamber.
Set your piston area to 1 inch square for standardisation across builds and measure your pump rates versus electrical energy in.
It would help if you automated the process by swapping out the ignition system for a snapvalve governer.
You don't need a main pump piston in this configuration because the boundary layer between liquid and gas forms the piston surface.
You can only refill at the rate of your water inlet supply, how much potential energy it has. If the gas remaining in the chamber is at a higher pressure than the water in the lower chamber it will continue to pump and not refill. That's why I used low electrolysis gas generation rates because atmospheric pressure from the reservoir could partially refill the chamber before gas pressure built up again.
Once you have got that far you will see why a solid pump piston was necessary in order to hit mechanical stops, that would build gas pressure in an internal fixed volume (piston has now stopped), and trigger the snapvalve. The return spring then makes sense to decrease the gas volume chamber and achieve pressure equilibrium. The gas pressure will continue to build and pump liquid again, cycle repeats.
My OUR 2018 project is the hhopstove, a new type of portable solar stove that draws the water to camp, heats, cooks and purifies drinking water.
Portable stove
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_stove
A portable stove is a cooking stove specially designed to be portable and lightweight, used in camping, picnicking, backpacking, or other use in remote locations where an easily transportable means of cooking or heating is needed. Portable stoves can be used in diverse situations, such as for outdoor food service and catering[1] and in field hospitals.[2]
Since the invention of the portable stove in the 19th century, a wide variety of designs and models have seen use in a number of different applications. Portable stoves can be broken down into several broad categories based on the type of fuel used and stove design: unpressurized stoves that use solid or liquid fuel placed in the burner before ignition; stoves that use a volatile liquid fuel in a pressurized burner; bottled gas stoves; and gravity-fed "spirit" stoves.
We need to define what the main parts and function of the hhopstove are.
1) A solar panel. (or alternative electrical supply)
2) An electrolysis cell. (self pressurising)
3) A main piston pump.
4) An automatic snapvalve governor. (alternatively any valve with an electronic brain governor)
5) A safety bubbler expansion chamber.
6) A hho flame feed gas reservoir.
7) A hho flame burner nozzle.
8) A steam distillation chamber.
Our task is to design and engineer all of those sleeved subassemblies into one inline design and come in with a total footprint similar in size to a Kelly kettle base camp stove model.
hhopstove
The hho gas feed reservoir has been fully sleeved and enlarged to provide the necessary capacity. The gas pressure must always be above natural atmospheric pressure, and so the pressure behaviour will hunt between maximum and minimum reservoir pressure, as the gas is used (combusted) pressure will drop and as the gas is replenished (generated through liquid to gas phase transition) the pressure will increase.
The water inlet and output valves are shown on separate sides of the system but can be built into one inline assembly using radial porting and operated by the opposing pressure cycles (similar to a pneumatic slide check valve).
The flame output at the top of the cell can simply boil water, or a more advanced design would incorporate a pressure cooker on top for efficiency (and flavour! yum).. I do not advise this for the inexperienced, and it is not strictly necessary. For safety sake at the moment leave this water heating assembly open to atmospheric pressure (through the heat exchanger / condenser assembly for refrigeration and condensate capture).
We can talk about the potential for drawing water to camp using a partial low pressure hho phase transition event (after most of the gas has been vented off to the burner) at a later date.. but.. you can also emit this process completely and use the main piston pump gas pressure to pump the water up to the stove. The only limits on this are the stable gas pressure you can achieve. The limit for the combustion draw option is 1 atmosphere = 10 meters.. The main pump can go much higher O0
The hhopstove is the basic model for the hhophouse, and different units can be performing different functions, dependent on the local need.. ;)
I have pursued automatic pressure feedback regulators as a personal challenge to fully understand the mechanisms at play within hhop.. however, if you want to use your own smart switching and valve systems then feel free to do so, with one word of caution.. If you are using electronic solenoid valves there is always the potential for the hho to get into the system and one spark = bang.. I have previously suggested electromagnetic solenoid switching through pressure walls to overcome this safety issue.
Happy New Year to all OUR friends! O0
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
Our task is to design and engineer all of those sleeved subassemblies into one inline design and come in with a total footprint similar in size to a Kelly kettle base camp stove model.
For those wondering what a Kelly kettle base camp stove model is:
https://www.kellykettle.com/kelly-kettles/stainless-steel-kelly-kettles/stainless-steel-base-camp-1-5lt
One benefit of the hhopstove will be no smoke to give your position away O0
Some nice January offers on as well:
https://www.kellykettle.com/kelly-kettles/stainless-steel-kelly-kettles
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
1) A solar panel. (or alternative electrical supply)
If your solar panel array is pulling in on average 1kW for 8 hours of every day then you have harvested 8 kW/h of energy stored in your battery array.
If you run your hhopstove for 24 hours continuously then the energy available from the battery bank to do that will be 8000 Watts / 24 hours = 333.33 W/h
333 Watts continuous for 24 hours is a lot of gas..
You will obviously harvest more energy during the summer than during the winter, so adjust your figures accordingly to run the hhopstove 365 days a year at the capacity you require for your needs.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
2) An electrolysis cell. (self pressurising)
You can use any kind of DC electrolysis cell as long as it is structurally capable of withstanding the internal pressure created by the liquid to gas phase transition.
If you use AC electrolysis then you will need a driving circuit to run form your DC electrical storage battery.
I use DC only because it is simpler and the energy draw can be easily set by the physical size of your electrolysis cell and will provide a large surface area for gas evolution.
I don't like plastic pressure housings! I prefer stainless but there is no reason you cannot cheaply encase the cell in a plastic pipe as an extra precaution.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
3) A main piston pump.
This is the heart of the hhopstove and exploits the ability to use stable gas pressure volume differential to do work on a liquid while separating the combustion potential for use in another process.
Small piston volumes allow for a faster system cycle and less potential for loss in the event that your gas unexpectedly combusts. If this happens the system will just reset and continue automatically.
There is the option of including a vacuum water draw to the cycle after venting off the majority of your hho gas to the hho torch feed reservoir, but this is limited to 1 atmosphere of pressure and about 10 meters of draw. You would also need to add an ignition circuit to the system, an extra complexity, along with a pressure pulse that would not be particularly useful in this system.
For higher draw requirements (beyond 10 meters) a positive pumping force would be required and this can be achieved with a stronger main pump spring, the heavy spring providing the vacuum effect beyond 1 atm to draw the water up to operating level. The tradeoff here is that the system would take longer to cycle and operate at a higher pressure, requiring significantly more gas to fill the piston bore cylinder volume.
The triggering pressure of the snapvalve governor must be slightly above the operating pressure of the system, and can be achieved with a physical stop preventing the piston from moving beyond that point.
The system backpressure is set by the spring loaded NRV cracking pressure.
It would be a good idea to add a manual priming option for the pump. If for example the water is 30 meters below you then you would need 3 atmospheres to raise it up to the hhopstove, so set your system to 4 atm (60 psi) on the NRV outlet and the main pump spring (swap it out) and supply that energy yourself rather than wasting a lot of time and your electrical energy from the battery to prime the pump.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
4) An automatic snapvalve governor. (alternatively any valve with an electronic brain governor)
My preference is for a relatively high pressure system compared to atmospheric pressure. (I have demonstrated to a handful of people a snapvalve governor operating at 200 psi without combustion from a DC electrolysis cell at 6 Watts input power over a period of 6 to 7 minutes; this is not faith, it is fact)
The system operates on a pressure gradient with the highest pressure developed at source (the electrolysis cell) and the lowest pressure at the system termination, the hho flame burner.
The higher the pressure the larger the pressure drop when vented to a lower pressure gas system. (The observers of my demonstration witnessed a drop to zero pressure on the gauge, a slight pause, and then a steady pressure increase as the gas was evolved continuously at a specific rate)
There was no fluid pumped during this demonstration as I was effectively limiting the variables to demonstrate specific behaviour. If I was to have pumped fluid with a solid piston and a main return spring the volume would have increased and the amount of gas ejected from that part of the system would have been reduced slightly, hence my preference for high pressure small volume liquid pumping.
The main piston would have returned until pressure equilibrium was achieved, partially refilling the chamber with water, and the cycle would repeat. It is not necessary to complete a full piston stroke as the gas acts as a spring and the system will cycle..
Do not use a solenoid valve that has the potential to leak hydrogen into the mechanism for obvious reasons.. The brain works best on automatic pressure feedback!
The main spring in the example of 4 atm (60 psi) will move first (solid frame of reference) and any liquid pumped will be secondary.. you can set the liquid NRV to less than the main spring resistance.. so a system set at 5 atm (75 psi) will do 4 atm of work in the solid frame and 1 atm in the liquid frame of the given example.. think about it..
O0
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
5) A safety bubbler expansion chamber.
6) A hho flame feed gas reservoir.
7) A hho flame burner nozzle.
The bubbler, reservoir and burner form a sub assembly on the output side of the system.
The reservoir must have enough capacity to provide a constant flow of gas at a suitable pressure. As the snapvalve governor vents to the expansion the pressure in this sub assembly it will be at it's maximum and the pressure will drop as the gas is combusted at the burner. If the snapvalve is cycling too slowly to maintain a suitable positive pressure the flame will go out obviously.
The bubbler integration is the safety feature and prevents flashbacks from the burner igniting the reservoir. The electrolysis cell itself is protected from this somewhat because of the spring preload on the snapvalve piston holding it shut. You can of course add on a solid state flashback arrestor bewteen the burner and the bubbler similar to the arrestors used on welding equipment.
Quote from: evolvingape on 2017.12.26, 13:45:17
8) A steam distillation chamber.
This is the part that turns non potable water into drinking water for your own use as well as irrigation. The heat energy for this process is supplied by the hho gas burner.
You cannot directly drink the waste water product from the conversion of hho gas to water as it will be contaminated, so you must use a steam distillation process and allow the steam to condense back into clean water. The latent waste heat from this process is ideal to run your absorption refrigeration system which can be bought off the shelf and is designed to run on a propane flame energy source.
There is the potential to have a steam pressure cooker assembly as an optional add on but
I do not recommend the home experimenter pursue this as it is just too dangerous to develop outside of controlled safety conditions. Pressurised steam explosions can be extremely dangerous!
snapvalve governor operation
Pressure Regulator
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_regulator
A pressure regulator is a control valve that reduces the input pressure of a fluid to a desired value at its output. Regulators are used for gases and liquids, and can be an integral device with an output pressure setting, a restrictor and a sensor all in the one body, or consist of a separate pressure sensor, controller and flow valve.
Operation
A pressure regulator's primary function is to match the flow of gas through the regulator to the demand for gas placed upon it, whilst maintaining a constant output pressure.
If the load flow decreases, then the regulator flow must decrease also. If the load flow increases, then the regulator flow must increase in order to keep the controlled pressure from decreasing due to a shortage of gas in the pressure system.
A pressure regulator includes a restricting element, a loading element, and a measuring element:
The restricting element is a valve that can provide a variable restriction to the flow, such as a globe valve, butterfly valve, poppet valve, etc.
The loading element is a part that can apply the needed force to the restricting element. This loading can be provided by a weight, a spring, a piston actuator, or the diaphragm actuator in combination with a spring.
The measuring element functions to determine when the inlet flow is equal to the outlet flow. The diaphragm itself is often used as a measuring element; it can serve as a combined element.
In the pictured single-stage regulator, a force balance is used on the diaphragm to control a poppet valve in order to regulate pressure. With no inlet pressure, the spring above the diaphragm pushes it down on the poppet valve, holding it open. Once inlet pressure is introduced, the open poppet allows flow to the diaphragm and pressure in the upper chamber increases, until the diaphragm is pushed upward against the spring, causing the poppet to reduce flow, finally stopping further increase of pressure. By adjusting the top screw, the downward pressure on the diaphragm can be increased, requiring more pressure in the upper chamber to maintain equilibrium. In this way, the outlet pressure of the regulator is controlled.
Single stage regulator
High pressure gas from the supply enters into the regulator through the inlet valve. The gas then enters the body of the regulator, which is controlled by the needle valve. The pressure rises, which pushes the diaphragm, closing the inlet valve to which it is attached, and preventing any more gas from entering the regulator.
The outlet side is fitted with a pressure gauge. As gas is drawn from the outlet side, the pressure inside the regulator body falls. The diaphragm is pushed back by the spring and the valve opens, letting more gas in from the supply until equilibrium is reached between the outlet pressure and the spring. The outlet pressure therefore depends on the spring force, which can be adjusted by means of an adjustment handle or knob.
The outlet pressure and the inlet pressure hold the diaphragm/poppet assembly in the closed position against the force of the large spring. If the supply pressure falls, it is as if the large spring compression is increased allowing more gas and higher pressure to build in the outlet chamber until an equilibrium pressure is reached. Thus, if the supply pressure falls, the outlet pressure will increase, provided the outlet pressure remains below the falling supply pressure. This is the cause of end-of-tank dump where the supply is provided by a pressurized gas tank. With a single stage regulator, when the supply tank gets low, the lower inlet pressure causes the outlet pressure to climb. If the spring compression is not adjusted to compensate, the poppet can remain open and allow the tank to rapidly dump its remaining contents. In other words, the lower the supply pressure, the lower the pressure differential the regulator can achieve for a given spring setting.
Working Principle - Single Stage Pressure Regulator
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kf3xc1BGYGo
How does a natural gas regulator work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4DDnoMAHY8
Chet got his Q&A Skype session last night and so I have put up a new drawing clarifying some of the things we talked about.
A single stage pressure regulator provides a constant gas flow at the required pressure to the flame burner.
The piston area has been reduced to one inch square to increase cycle time of the snapvalve governor preventing the hho reservoir from being starved of gas.
The electrolysis cell has been expanded to provide a larger surface area and increase the rate of gas production.
A question was asked about the inclusion of neutral tubes in the electrolysis cell. This technique can lower voltage and lead to higher cell efficiency:
http://www.hho4free.com/neutral_plates.html
http://www.hho4free.com/number_of_plates.html
It also reduces the number of electrical connections necessary to make a circuit, without sacrificing productive surface area, and makes construction easier.
I have successfully used heat shrink tubing to form a dielectric barrier around the main pump shaft, isolating it from the circuit.
If you choose to isolate the water level of the electrolysis cell it will need replenishing every so often as the liquid water is phase transitioned to gas and the mass leaves the system.
A fill port could be used, itself fed from an external electrolyte reservoir at the desired fill level of the cell. The safety bubbler will also need fill port access.
If the liquid level is below the top of each electrode tube the plates will be isolated, if it is above the top of the each electrode the cell will not be electrically isolated. I have successfully used both types of cell but I did not spend a lot of time analysing the performance of each. The tubular cell that ignited off a battery charger when turned on was the isolated type with the central positive tube electrode a few mm clear of the water electrolyte level, a spark gap in effect.. but ignition with 12V ? still not worked that one out!
The hhopstove is designed so that the gas pressure in the hho torch feed reservoir operates on a pressure gradient. The gas output to the hho torch is constant which is managed by the pressure regulator, but the reservoir gas pressure will fluctuate between maximum and then reduce over time as the gas is burnt off to atmosphere.
The snapvalve governor controls the rate at which the reservoir is refilled, and this is directly related to the electrical energy that is supplied to the electrolysis cell to control the rate of gas production. In the event of the pressure regulator becoming blocked the gas pressure within the hhopstove will continue to rise as there is no feedback mechanism to turn the electricity supply off and stop producing gas. The snapvalve governor will continue to function as it constantly seeks to equalise force on both acting faces of the piston and the overall system pressure will continue to rise, as will the pressure the snapvalve triggers at due to an increased gas pressure creating a larger force on the top of the piston trying to keep it closed.
If this should happen the system gas pressure within the hhopstove will continue to rise until one of two things happens, the housing will become stressed beyond it's mechanical limits and crack venting the gas pressure to atmosphere, or the hho will reach self ignition pressure. As a safety measure it is necessary to place a pressure relief valve (PRV or blow off valve) in the housing wall of the hho feed reservoir. This will allow the gas to be vented to atmosphere and prevent a potentially dangerous condition occurring. The safety PRV is obviously going to be set at a higher cracking pressure than system operating pressure. It would be sensible to route it so that it is not near the hho flame assembly, as the PRV could also be triggered in the event that gas production within the cell is at a much higher rate than can be burnt off by the constant low pressure flame.
Chatting amongst yourselves I hope you have figured out that you cannot draw water more than 1 atmosphere or about 10 meters, even with a spring loaded piston return set at a higher pressure. The reason for this is that at 10 meters (no matter the diameter bore of your pipe) the weight of the water will pull away from the bottom face of the piston and create a vacuum. The solution to this is a daisy chained hhop system every 9 meters or a single hhop dropped to the depth required to reach the water level and a sufficient operating pressure to force pump it up to ground level. DC electricity losses must be accounted for within your power input level over a significant distance, and losses from the hho in the pipe potentially cooking off must be accepted. There may be different levels of gas stability attainable from different production techniques.
Absorption refrigeration can be easily shown to be desirable in a hhop base camp situation but a fridge is not that portable, you may just require potable drinking water without the refrigeration. In this scenario it would be possible to use a pressure cooker (enclosed volume) system with a built in radiator:
http://www.ebay.co.uk/itm/Stainless-Steel-Pressure-
Cooker-Distiller-Alcohol-Moonshine-3-5-36ltr/132360726388var=431689436014&hash=
item1ed150674:m:m-SvIlViWHikB443MykvHJQ
In this off the shelf example you can see from the diagram they are using sink science.. this is the energy provided by the water company to provide your house with water pressure (normally around 2 bar, could be more, could be less depending on circumstances). I just did a quick test on my kitchen tap and at full flow I could fill a 1 liter bottle in 2 and 1/2 elephants.. conservatively that gives me about 20 liters of cold water flow per minute.. I am not on a water meter so within a week or two I would expect to see water engineers digging up the street looking for the leak..
https://www.zerohedge.com/news/2017-09-21/look-how-nestle-makes-billions-selling-you-groundwater-bottle
I guess they got the idea from Delboy:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Nature%27s_Son
_(Only_Fools_and_Horses)
hhop cannot compete with the water companies pumping power, but it is designed to run from solar power (or any DC energy source) away from infrastructure.. It is a fluid pump, and it can remove heat from the radiator and therefore condense the steam to potable drinking water.. now you have a use for the water pumped that is not accumulator storage..(but still could be ;))
In the event that the hho flame is found to burn through the stainless steel pressure vessel base there are two obvious choices. A hho flame has been shown to burn underwater so it could be placed within the pressure vessel itself heating the water. The other option is to have an air chamber inside the pressure vessel base with a stainless tubular coil within the water, this would allow the hot air to transfer heat to the water through the tubular wall (same as the radiator) without melting anything.. but would be less efficient. This is based upon the situation where there is no easily accessible water source, and the water has to be pumped to camp from the source.. if you have a running stream at your location then you can just submerge your radiator in that and achieve maximum efficiency with your radiator.
hhopress
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TjzKpke0nSU
Hydraulic Press - How It Works
By James Dann
INSIDE A BOTTLE JACK ANIMATION
Every week students, engineers and curious people from all walks of life ask us what makes a jack work and are quite surprised to hear that the answer is simple leverage.
Putting that 3 foot handle into the little pump piston handle yoke and pushing down with the force in your arm does the trick. Try the same operation with the jack under load using only a six inch handle and you'll soon see a big difference. Or try it with a six foot handle - Much easier.
In a floor jack, it's the same thing except the 'bottle jack' is positioned horizontally and pushes against a lever lifting the main lift arm. Plus you're using a longer handle and you're getting more lift per stroke with the increased leverage, allowing you to pressurize more oil and move it around quicker.
A hand pumped Porto-Power style component system would also act in almost the same manner except the pump would contain the reservoir, release, check valves and pumping piston while a high pressure steel re-inforced rubber hose would act as a 'port' to the main cylinder where the main piston would do the pushing when pressurized oil was applied to it.
We have deliberately left out the seals to keep the minute details to a minimum and mainly explore the basic elements. The two Primary sealing points would be between the Pump Piston and the Pump Cylinder wall and between the Main Piston and the Main Cylinder wall.
The release valve, tops of the Main and Pump Pistons are secondary sealing points, even tho they are the most visable. Usually when a leak is present at the Pump or Main Pistons the actual problem is further down inside...
How to make skateboard from toilet paper using hydraulic press
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytMvRuLApfs
you can drop a hhop gen 2 hybrid in place of the human pumper..
solar powered hydraulic press.. fully scaleable.. remember the lever:
Experiment | The Crusher
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zNLWGE4LeAo
https://www.manomano.co.uk/workshop-press/6t-hydraulic-shop-press-workshop-garage-floor-standing-heavy-duty-plates-2766211?model_id=2766211
Six simple force-multiplying devices - the simple machines. Lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, wedge.
http://www.solitaryroad.com/c1019.html
Website owner: James Miller
There are six simple force-multiplying devices that are employed in various forms in many ways in our mechanized society and are important components of many machines. They are
(1) the lever
(2) the pulley system (i.e. block and tackle)
(3) the wheel and axle
(4) the inclined plane
(5) the screw
(6) the wedge
Many machines are either modifications of one of these devices or combinations of two or more of them. In physics these six devices are called the simple machines.
In all of the above machines there is a force F1 applied to the machine which moves through some distance s1 and a force F2 exerted by the machine on the load which moves through some distance s2. The product F1s1 represents work put into the machine. The product F2s2 represents useful work done by the machine.
Input and output of a machine. The work W1 = F1s1 representing work input into the machine is called the input. The work W2 = F2s2 representing work output by the machine is called the output.
In a frictionless machine W2 = W1 and F2s2 = F1s1. In this ideal case, where no friction is assumed, we hav
Mechanical advantage. The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of a machine is
AMA = F2 /F1
Thus if an applied force of 1 lb generates a multiplied force of 5 lb, the actual mechanical advantage of the machine is 5.
The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) of a machine is the mechanical advantage it would have if there were no friction and is given by
IMA = s1/s2
However, there is usually friction. Consequently, of the work input into the machine, some is lost to friction. Thus
W1 = Wf + W2
where Wf is work done against friction, or
F1s1 = Wf + F2s2
Efficiency of a machine. The efficiency E of a machine is given by
The lever. A lever consists of a rigid bar which is free to turn about a fixed pivot point called a fulcrum. The lever can be used to multiply force and lift weights. The part of the lever between the load and fulcrum is called the load arm. The part between the effort and fulcrum is called the effort arm. See Fig. 1.
The effort needed to lift a load is given by the law of the lever:
Law of the lever: The effort times the length of the effort arm is equal to the load times the length of the load arm.
This law corresponds to the rule that for equilibrium (i.e. balance) the sum of the counterclockwise moments about the pivot point must be equal to the sum of the clockwise moments.
Example. What force F is needed to lift a load of 100 lb if the length of the load arm is 2 ft and the length of the effort arm is 10 ft?
Solution. 10F = 2×100 so F = 20 lb
Mechanical advantage of a lever. The mechanical advantage of a lever is given by
---------------------------------------------
Proof. In Fig. 2 an applied force F1 at point A causes a multiplied up-acting force at point B, lifting the load. In doing this, point A moves through a distance s1 along arc AC to point C while point B moves a distance s2along arc BD to point D. The ideal mechanical advantage of this machine is then
IMA = s1/s2
where s1 is the length of arc AC and s2 is the length of arc BD. However, s1/s2 = AO/OB. Why? Because arcs of circles subtended by equal central angles are directly proportional to the radii of the circles. Thus IMA = AO/OB. The efficiency of levers is often nearly 100%.
---------------------------------------------
Three classes of levers. There are three classes of levers.
1. First class lever. In a first class lever the fulcrum is located between the effort and the load.
2. Second class lever. In a second class lever the load is located between the fulcrum and the effort. Example: wheelbarrow.
3. Third class lever. In a third class lever the effort is located between the fulcrum and the load. Example: forearm. A third class lever multiplies speed rather than force.
See Fig. 3.
The pulley system (block and tackle). There are a variety of pulley systems that can be used for lifting loads. Pulleys are mounted in frames called blocks. The rope is called tackle.
The ideal mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be computed from the formula
IMA = s1/s2
where s1 is the distance through which the applied force travels and s2 is the distance through which the load travels. In multiple block and tackle the IMA is equal to the number of ropes supporting the load. Because of friction in the blocks and rigidity of the ropes the efficiency of block and tackle is usually less than 60%.
The wheel and axle. The wheel and axle consists of a wheel or crank that is rigidly attached to an axle. See Fig. 5. In Fig. 6 we see that a wheel and axle is similar to a lever with unequal arms.
The ideal mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle is
where
R = radius of the wheel
r = radius of the axle
The wheel and axle is often used to multiply speed instead of force. Example: wheels on bicycles and motor vehicles.
The inclined plane. When it is desired to raise something that is too heavy to lift, an inclined plane or ramp is sometimes used. One may load heavy barrels on a truck by rolling them up an inclined plane constructed of planks.
The ideal mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is
where
l = length of the plane (length of incline)
h = height of plane
See Fig. 7.
The screw. A screw is really an inclined plane wound on a cylinder. The distance between the threads is called the pitch of the screw. One complete revolution of the screw will move it into an object the distance of the pitch. Wood screws, bolts, and screw jacks represent applications of the screw.
The mechanical advantage of a screw depends on the length of the lever arm used in turning the screw. See Fig. 8. While the effort force completes a full circle, the head and axis of the screw make one complete turn and the load moves a distance equal to the pitch of the screw. If r is the length of the lever arm, then in one complete revolution, the distance s1 through which F moves is 2πr. As F moves this distance, the weight w moves the distance d, which is the pitch of the screw. Thus the ideal mechanical advantage is given by
where
r = length of lever arm
d = pitch of screw
The wedge. The wedge is really a double inclined plane. There is so much friction in using a wedge that a theoretical mechanical advantage has no significance. A long thin wedge is easier to drive than a short thick one so one can say that the mechanical advantage of a wedge depends on the ratio of its length to its thickness. Examples of wedges: axes, nails, pins.
References
Dull, Metcalfe, Brooks. Modern Physics.
Schaum. College Physics.
Sears, Zemansky. University Physics.
A hhop press would have a prime mover input of solar energy to drive the electrolysis cell.
The phase transition of liquid to gas would create an over pressure potential and the controlled bleed of energy to work done would create a pressure gradient.
The lever multiplies force at the expense of further distance travelled over a longer time period.
The pressure relief valve on the hydraulic jack is manually operated, the snapvalve on the hhop gen 2 hybrid is self regulating and hunts around operating pressure.
Ideally the electrolysis cell, piston and snapvalve governor are built inline. The basic U bend model is replaced inline with smart radial port placement of the tube chambers when oriented vertically.
https://www.amazon.com/dp/B076K55CMB/ref=sspa_
dk_detail_5psc=1&pd_rd_i=B076K55CMB&pd_rd_wg=0
bA1n&pd_rd_r=53ENV6RPJHZG18MR90Q6&pd_rd_w=
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Equipped with a USB 5V/2.1A(max) port and DC 18V/5.0A(max) port, one for USB-charged devices and the other for 18V laptops or other 18V powered devices.
5V x 2A = 10W Should run a gen 2 hybrid.
You can go much cheaper and charge at a slower current draw (0.1A example for a $30 panel trickle charger) and take a lot longer to reach snapvalve governor trigger pressure.
What else can you run beside a press with a high pressure solar hydraulic pump ?
Power Density
A Key to Understanding Energy Sources and Uses
By Vaclav Smil
https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/power-density
Summary
The first systematic, quantitative appraisal of power density, offering detailed reviews of power densities of renewable energy flows, fossil fuels, and all common energy uses.
"There's no author whose books I look forward to more than Vaclav Smil." —Bill Gates
In this book, Vaclav Smil argues that power density is a key determinant of the nature and dynamics of energy systems. Any understanding of complex energy systems must rely on quantitative measures of many fundamental variables. Power density—the rate of energy flux per unit of area—is an important but largely overlooked measure. Smil provides the first systematic, quantitative appraisal of power density, offering detailed reviews of the power densities of renewable energy flows, fossil fuels, thermal electricity generation, and all common energy uses.
Smil shows that careful quantification, critical appraisals, and revealing comparisons of power densities make possible a deeper understanding of the ways we harness, convert, and use energies. Conscientious assessment of power densities, he argues, proves particularly revealing when contrasting the fossil fuel–based energy system with renewable energy conversions.
Smil explains that modern civilization has evolved as a direct expression of the high power densities of fossil fuel extraction. He argues that our inevitable (and desirable) move to new energy arrangements involving conversions of lower-density renewable energy sources will require our society—currently dominated by megacities and concentrated industrial production—to undergo a profound spatial restructuring of its energy system.
Hardcover
Out of Print
ISBN: 9780262029148
320 pp. | 6 in x 9 in
42 figures
May 2015